To provide evidence-based strategies for ensuring rigor of case studies, the authors examine what rigor types authors report and how they report them by content analyzing all case studies published 1995—2000 in 10 management journals. Comparing practices in articles addressing rigor extensively and less extensively, the authors reveal three strategies for insuring rigor. First, very few case study authors explicitly label the rigor criteria in terms of the concepts commonly used in the positivist tradition (construct, internal, and external validity, as well as reliability). Despite this, papers addressing rigor extensively do report concrete research actions taken to ensure methodological rigor. Second, papers addressing rigor extensively prioritized rigor types: more, and more detailed, strategies were reported for ensuring internal and construct validity than for external validity. Third, emergent strategies used in the field were reported, such as setbacks and serendipities, that necessitated changes to the originally planned research procedures. Authors focus squarely on the concrete research actions taken, carefully relaying them to the reader so that the reader may appreciate the logic and purpose of trade-off decisions in the context of the specific case study.
Amis, J.M., & Silk, M.L. ( 2008). The philosophy and politics in qualitative organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 11, 456-480.
2.
Andrews, K.M., & Delahaye, B.L. (2000). Influences on knowledge processes in organizational learning: The psychological filter. Journal of Management Studies, 37, 796-810.
3.
Bacharach, S., Bamberger, P., & McKinney, V. ( 2000). Boundary management tactics and logics of action: The case of peer-support providers. Administrative Science Quarterly , 45, 704-736.
4.
Bartunek, J.M., Rynes, S.L., & Ireland, R.D. ( 2006). Editors’ forum: What makes management research interesting, and why does it matter?The Academy of Management Journal, 49, 9-15.
5.
Behling, O. ( 1980). The case for the natural science model for research in organizational behavior and organization theory. Academy of Management Review, 5, 483-490.
6.
Benbasat, I. ( 1984). An analysis of research methodologies. In F. Warren McFarlan (Ed.), The Information systems research challenge (pp. 47-85). Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
7.
Benbasat, I., Goldstein, D., & Mead, M. ( 1987). The case research strategy in studies of information systems. MIS Quarterly, 11, 369-386.
8.
Bergh, D.G., Perry, J., & Hanke, R. ( 2006). Some predictors of SMJ article impact. Strategic Management Journal, 27, 81-100.
9.
Birkinshaw, J., Bresman, H., & Hakanson, L. (2000). Managing the post-acquisition integration process: How the human integration and task integration processes interact to foster value integration. Journal of Management Studies, 37, 396-425.
10.
Boyd, B.K., Gove, S., & Hitt, M.A. ( 2005). Construct measurement in strategic management research: Illusion or reality? Strategic Management Journal, 26, 239-258.
11.
Bresman, H., Birkinshaw, J., & Nobel, R. ( 1999). Knowledge transfer in international acquisitions. Journal of International Business Studies, 30, 439-462.
12.
Buchel, B. ( 2000). Framework of joint venture development: Theory-building through quantitative research. Journal of Management Studies , 37, 55-83.
13.
Bullock, R.J., & Tubbs, M.E. ( 1987). The case meta-analysis for OD. Research in Organizational Change and Development, 1, 171-228.
14.
Bullock, R.J., & Tubbs, M.E. ( 1990). A case meta-analysis of gainsharing programs as organization development interventions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 26, 383-404.
15.
Burgelman, R.A. ( 1983). A model of the interaction of strategic behavior, corporate context and the concept of strategy. Academy of Management Review, 8, 61-70.
16.
Campbell, D.T. ( 1975). Degrees of freedom and the case study. Comparative Political Studies, 8, 178-193.
17.
Campbell, D.T., & Stanley, J. ( 1963). Experimental and quasi experimental designs for research . Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
18.
Chandler, A.D. ( 1962). Strategy and structure. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
19.
Cook, T.D., & Campbell, D.T. (1976). The design and conduct of quasi-experiments and true experiments in fields settings. In M. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 223-326). Chicago: Rand McNally.
20.
Cook, T.D., & Campbell, D.T. (1979). Quasi-experimental design: Design and analysis issues for field settings. Skokie, IL: Rand McNally.
21.
Corbin, J.M., & Strauss, A. ( 1988). Unending care and work. San Francisco : Jossey-Bass.
22.
Daft, R.L., & Lewin, A.Y. ( 1990). Can organization studies begin to break out of the normal science straight-jacket? An editorial essay. Organization Science, 1, 1-9.
Derong, C., & Faure, G.O. ( 1995). When Chinese companies negotiate with their government . Organization Studies, 16, 27-54.
25.
Doz, Y. ( 1996). The evolution of cooperation in strategic alliances: initial conditions or learning processes? Strategic Management Journal, 17, 55-82.
26.
Easterby-Smith, M., Golden-Biddle, K., & Locke, K. ( 2008). Working with pluralism: Determining quality in qualitative research. Organizational Research Methods, 11, 419-429.
27.
Eisenhardt, K.M. ( 1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management Review, 14, 532-550.
28.
Eisenhardt, K.M., & Graebner, M.E. (2007). Theory building from cases: Opportunities and challenges. Academy of Management Journal , 50, 25-32.
29.
Fendt, J., & Sachs, W. ( 2008). Grounded theory method in management research: Users’ perspectives. Organizational Research Methods, 11, 430-455.
Guba, E.G., & Lincoln, Y.S. ( 2005). Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging confluences. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (pp. 191-215). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
39.
Jick, T.D. ( 1979). Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods: Triangulation in action. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 602-611.
40.
Judge, D.A., Cable, D.A., Colbert, A.E., & Rynes, S.L. ( 2007). What causes a management article to be cited? Article, author, or journal?Academy of Management Journal, 50, 491-506.
41.
Kidder, L., & Judd, C.M. ( 1986). Research methods in social relations (5th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
42.
Kirk, J., & Miller, M.L. ( 1986). Reliability and validity in qualitative research. London: Sage.
43.
Lane, D., & Maxfield, R. ( 1996). Strategy under complexity: Fostering generative relationships . Long Range Planning, 29, 215-231.
44.
Larsson, R. ( 1993). Case survey methodology: Quantitative analysis of patterns across case studies. Academy of Management Journal, 36, 1515-1546.
45.
Larsson, R., & Finkelstein, S. (1999). Integrating strategic, organizational and human resource perspectives on mergers and acquisitions: A case of synergy realization. Organization Science, 10, 1-26.
46.
Laurila, J. ( 1997). The thin line between advanced and conventional new technology: A case study on paper industry management. Journal of Management Studies, 34, 219-239.
47.
Lee, A.S. ( 2003). Generalizing generalizability in information systems research. Information Systems Research, 14, 221-243.
48.
Leonard-Barton, D. ( 1990). A dual methodology for case studies: Synergistic use of a longitudinal single site with replicated multi sites. Organization Science, 1, 248-266.
49.
Levy, D.L. ( 2000). International sourcing and supply chain stability. Journal of International Business Studies, 26, 343-360.
50.
Locke, K. ( 1996). A funny thing happened! The management of consumer emotions in service encounters. Organization Science, 7, 40-59.
51.
Lovas, B., & Goshal, S. ( 2000). Strategy as guided evolution. Strategic Management Journal, 25, 801-822.
52.
March, J.G., Sproull, L.S., & Tamuz, M. ( 1991). Learning from samples of one or fewer. Organization Science, 2, 1-13.
53.
Maznevski, M., & Chudoba, K. ( 2000). Bridging space over time: Global virtual team dynamics and effectiveness. Organization Science, 11, 473-492.
54.
Miles, M.B. ( 1979). Qualitative data as an attractive nuisance: The problem of analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 590-601.
55.
Miles, M.B., & Huberman, A.M. (1984). Qualitative data analysis: A sourcebook of new methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
56.
Miller, S. ( 1997). Implementing strategic decisions: Four key success factors . Organization Studies, 18, 577-602.
57.
Mitchell, T.R. ( 1985). An evaluation of the validity of correlational research conducted in organizations. Academy of Management Journal , 10, 192-205.
58.
Mueller, F., & Dyerson, R. ( 1999). Expert humans or expert organizations? Organization Studies, 20, 225-256.
59.
Numagami, T. ( 1998). The infeasibility of invariant laws in management studies: A reflective dialogue in defense of case studies. Organization Science, 9, 2-15.
60.
Penrose, E.T. ( 1960). The growth of the firm. A case study: The Hercules powder company. Business History Review, 34, 1-23.
61.
Peters, T.J., & Waterman, R.H. (1982). In search of excellence: Lessons from America’s best-run companies. New York : Harper & Row.
62.
Pettigrew, A. ( 1973). The politics of organizational decision making. London: Tavistock.
63.
Pettigrew, A. ( 1990). Longitudinal field research on change: Theory and practice . Organization Science, 1, 267-292.
64.
Piekkari, R., Welch, C., & Paavilainen, E. (in press). The case study as a disciplinary convention: Evidence from international business journals. Organizational Research Methods.
65.
Popper, K. ( 1959). The logic of scientific discovery. Tuebingen: Hutchinson.
66.
Prahalad, C., & Hamel, G. ( 1990). The core competence of the corporation. Harvard Business Review, May-June, 79-91.
67.
Pratt, M. ( 2008). Fitting oval pegs into round holes: Tensions in evaluating and publishing qualitative research in top-tierAmerican journals. Organizational Research Methods, 11, 481-509.
68.
Pratt, M. ( 2000). The good, the bad, and the ambivalent: Managing identification among Amway distributors. Administrative Science Quarterly , 45, 456-493.
69.
Rosenbloom, R.S. ( 2000). Leadership, capabilities, and technological change: The transformation of NCR in the electronic era. Strategic Management Journal, 21, 1083-1103.
70.
Scandura, T.A., & Williams, E.A. (2000). Research methodology in management: Current practices, trends, and implications for future research . Academy of Management Journal, 43, 1248-1264.
71.
Schriesheim, C.A., Powers, K.J., Scandura, T.A., Gardiner, C.C., & Lankau, M.J. ( 1993). Improving construct measurement in management research: Comments and a quantitative approach for assessing the theoretical content adequacy of paper-and-pencil survey-type instruments. Journal of Management, 19, 385-417.
72.
Siggelkow, N. ( 2007). Persuasion with case studies. Academy of Management Journal, 50, 20-24.
73.
Silverman, D. ( 2005). Doing qualitative research. London : Sage.
74.
Silverman, D. ( 2006). Interpreting qualitative data. London : Sage.
75.
Stake, R.E. ( 1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
76.
Tahai, A., & Meyer, M.J. ( 1999). A revealed preference study of management journals’ direct influences. Strategic Management Journal, 20, 279-296.
77.
Van Hoek, R.I., Voss, B., & Commandeur, H.R. (1999). Restructuring European supply chains by using postponement. Long Range Planning, 32, 505-518.
78.
Van Maanen, J. ( 1998). Different strokes: Qualitative research in the administrative science quarterly from 1956 to 1996. In J. Van Maanen (Ed.), Qualitative studies of organizations (pp. ix-xxxii). London: Sage.
79.
Weick, K. ( 2007). The generative properties of richness. Academy of Management Journal, 50, 14-19.
80.
Woiceshyn, J. ( 2000). Technology adoption: Organizational learning in oil firms . Organization Studies, 21, 1095-1118.
81.
Yin, R.K. ( 1981). The case study crisis: Some Answers. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26, 58-65.
82.
Yin, R.K. ( 1994). Case study research: Design and methods. London: Sage.
