This study analyzes the parallels between immigration-focused assimilation efforts made by social workers in the United States during the Progressive Era (early 1900s) and allyship efforts made by social workers today. Content analysis, a methodological approach used for identifying and categorizing emerging themes in primary texts that can be reinforced through secondary sources, allowed for the historical discourse in social work in the early 20th century to be examined thoroughly and critically. The aims and methods for achieving assimilation that social workers utilized parallel the performative actions allied social workers take today.
Findings
Social workers during the Progressive Era believed themselves more “pro-immigrant” than the rest of society. However, after examining their assimilationist tactics, it is evident their actions did not differ significantly from those who would not make that claim. Similarly, while social workers today may claim to be allies to marginalized groups, their solidarity can and should be questioned without proper action and risk.
Application
By highlighting unjust practices of the past that were posed as progressive and equitable, social workers are tasked with taking an inventory of their positions in anti-oppressive movements and examining whether they are genuinely contributing to efforts made by target groups or merely performing for their peers.
United States. Immigration Commission (1907–1910), BennetW. S.DillinghamW. P. (1911). Abstracts of reports of the Immigration Commission: With conclusions and recommendations and views of the minority. Govt. print. Off.
7.
BierstadtE. H. (1922). Aspects of Americanization. Stewart Kidd Company.
BrewerD. C. (1910). A patriotic movement for the assimilation of immigrants. The Editorial Review Co.
10.
ButlerF. C. (1919). State Americanization: The part of the state in the education and assimilation of the immigrant (No. 77). Department of the Interior: Bureau of Education.
11.
CookW. A. (1912). A brief survey of the development of compulsory education in the United States. The Elementary School Teacher, 12(7), 331–335. https://doi.org/10.1086/454134
DeckerR. J. (2014). Citizenship and its duties: The immigration restriction league as a progressive movement. Immigrants & Minorities, 32(2), 162–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619288.2013.860689
15.
DomínguezA. D.BertrandM. (2023). Where are the co-conspirators?: Examining performative youth allyship and opposition by educational leaders in K-12 schools. The Urban Review. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-023-00661-w
16.
DrachslerJ. (1920). Democracy and assimilation: The blending of immigrant heritages in America. The Macmillan Company.
17.
DriskoJ. W.MaschiT. (2016). Content analysis. Oxford University Press.
18.
EkpeL.ToutantS. (2022). Moving beyond performative allyship: A conceptual framework for anti-racist co-conspirators. In JohnsonK. F.Sparkman-KeyN. M.MecaA.TarverS. Z. (Eds.), Developing anti-racist practices in the helping professions: Inclusive theory, pedagogy, and application (pp. 67–91). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95451-2_5
19.
FairchildH. P. (1926). The melting-pot mistake. Little, Brown, and Co.
20.
FieldJ. A. (1911). The progress of eugenics. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 26(1), 1–67. https://doi.org/10.2307/1884524
FritzH. E. (1985). A final promise: The campaign to assimilate the Indians, 1880–1920. By Frederick E. Hoxie. Journal of American History, 72(2), 423–424. https://doi.org/10.2307/1903430
23.
GoddardH. H. (1912). The Kallikak family: A study in the heredity of feeble-mindedness. The Macmillan Company.
24.
GrantM. (1916). The passing of the great race. C. Scribner’s Sons.
Hull-House: A social settlement at 335 South Halstead Street, Chicago; Weekly program of lectures, clubs, classes, etc. (1892, March 1). [Lectures, Clubs, Classes, Etc.]. Hull-House Program.
27.
KennedyA. C. (2008). Eugenics, “degenerate girls,” and social workers during the progressive era. Affilia, 23(1), 22–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109907310473
KutlacaM.RadkeH. R. M. (2023). Towards an understanding of performative allyship: Definition, antecedents and consequences. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 17(2), e12724. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12724
30.
MarkelH.SternA. M. (2002). The foreignness of germs: The persistent association of immigrants and disease in American society. The Milbank Quarterly, 80(4), 757–788. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.00030
31.
McClanahanA. (2021). The downfalls of performative White allyship on social media in the #BlackLivesMatter Movement. Munn Scholars Awards, 7. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/munn/7
32.
MillerH. A. (1919). Treatment of immigrant heritage. National Conference on Social Work.
33.
MoldovanD. (1917). Where will be your home? An appeal and warning to every immigrant in America. The Digital Public Library of America.
34.
MooreT.SimangoG. (2021). The anti-racist social worker. Critical Publishing.
35.
MorrowP. A. (1912). Eugenics and racial poisons.
36.
OlneckM. R.LazersonM. (1974). The school achievement of immigrant children: 1900–1930. History of Education Quarterly, 14(4), 453–482. https://doi.org/10.2307/368098
37.
ParkY. (2006). Constructing immigrants: A historical discourse analysis of the prep work, 1882–1952. Journal of Social Work, 6(2), 169–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017306066673
38.
ParkY.KempS. P. (2006). “Little alien colonies”: Representations of immigrants and their neighborhoods in social work discourse, 1875–1924. Social Service Review, 80(4), 705–734. https://doi.org/10.1086/507934
Puck Magazine. (1889). The mortar of assimilation.
41.
QuimbyG. F. (1919). Americanization in industry; How to organize English and citizenship classes. Industrial Service Dept., Associated Industries of Massachusetts.
42.
RooseveltT. (1926). The works of Theodore Roosevelt: Vol. XXIV (Memorial). Charles Scribner’s Sons.
43.
RossD. (2009). Lincoln And the ethics of emancipation: Universalism, nationalism, exceptionalism. The Journal of American History, 96(2), 379–399. https://doi.org/10.1093/jahist/96.2.379
SpielmannN.DobschaS.ShrumL. J. (2023). Brands and social justice movements: The effects of true versus performative allyship on brand evaluation. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 8(1), 83–94. https://doi.org/10.1086/722697
ThompsonF. V. (1920). Schooling of the Immigrant. Harper & Bros.
52.
Title 8—Aliens and Nationality, Pub. L. No. Stat. 545, Ch. 69, 1, 40. (1918).
53.
U.S. Census Bureau. (1910a). 1910 census: Volume 4. Population, occupation statistics. U.S. Department of Commerce.
54.
U.S. Census Bureau. (1910b). Index of questions: 1910. U.S. Department of Commerce.
55.
U.S. Census Bureau. (1910c). Religious bodies: 1906. U.S. Department of Commerce & Labor.
56.
U.S. Census Bureau. (1920). 1920 census monograph 7. Immigrants and their children, 1920. U.S. Department of Commerce.
57.
U.S. Census Bureau. (1922). Increase of population in the United States 1910–1920. U.S. Department of Commerce.
58.
U.S. Census Bureau. (1925). Immigration: 1821–1925 [Chart 2: immigration into the United States from the different countries and total from all countries, 1820–1926]. U.S. Department of Commerce.
59.
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. (2020). The Immigrant Army: Immigrant Service Members in World War I.
60.
WackerR. F. (1979). Assimilation and cultural pluralism in American social thought. Phylon (1960-), 40(4), 325–333. https://doi.org/10.2307/274529
61.
WardR. D. (1919). Immigration restriction essential to Americanization (No. 74). Immigration Restriction League.
62.
WellmanM. L. (2022). Black squares for black lives? Performative allyship as credibility maintenance for social Media influencers on Instagram. Social Media + Society, 8(1), 20563051221080470. https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051221080473
63.
WinslowC.-E. A. (1929). The life of Hermann M. Biggs: M. D., D. SC., LL.D., physician and statesman of the public health. Lea & Febiger.
