Abstract
Summary
This article reports on the findings from a national evaluation of a specialist, Irish, social work service for Traveller families and communities. It begins with an historical overview of the service which was established in the 1960s but which has evolved and developed over the past few decades at a time of changing patterns of Traveller lives and social and economic conditions. It was also a period when the role of social work was changing, most notably with the introduction of state regulation of the profession. The article then critically analyses national and international literature on the role of social workers with Travellers. It then describes the mixed research method used to evaluate the service.
Findings
The findings highlight various, sometimes competing perspectives on the social work role, drawn from administrative data, a survey of social workers interviews with social workers and Traveller representatives. These include views about how the social work role was viewed by social workers and Traveller representatives, informed by theories on anti-oppressive practice, systems approaches and forms of advocacy.
Applications
The article concludes with a discussion of ways in which the lessons learned from the evaluation can be used to further develop the social work service in ways that can enhance the lives of Travellers, through forms of continuous professional development and the created of a national policy and practice framework.
Introduction
The following article reports on the findings of a national evaluation of a specialist Irish Traveller social work service, one that has undergone substantial changes since its establishment in the last century (Norris et al., 2021). This is an important moment in the history of this and other services, given the economic problems, racism and social exclusion experienced by Irish Travellers (Abdalla et al., 2013). Although there is growing knowledge about ways in which the lives of Irish Travellers have been adversely affected by policies and law, there is relatively little attention to the role of social workers in this field. The article seeks to address this lacuna by first situating this specialist social work service in historical and contemporary contexts as well as wider, international debates about the problems of the role and task in engaging with Traveller communities. It is argued, that to develop more authentic, empowering forms of practice, social workers need to recognize forms of structural discrimination and racism that impede practice by developing more holistic interventions.
A mixed method approach was used to explore stakeholders’ views about the effectiveness of the service, analyze the changing roles of social workers since the specialist service and make recommendations for future service delivery. Stakeholders’ views reveal a generally positive appreciation of the service. There were, however, ongoing concerns by practitioners and Traveller representatives about the changing nature of the role affected the delivery of social work services and whether they were equipped to deal with the contemporary effects of racism and discrimination. The article concludes with recommendations, drawn from the evaluation, including the need for a national framework that should enhance the consistency of standards, and new educational and training opportunities to enhance anti-racist and other empowering practices.
Irish travellers
Travellers are an indigenous population who have been living in Ireland for at least 1000 years, with strong cultural attachments to nomadism and extended family lifestyles. At the last census of 2016 (Central Statistics Office, 2016) there were 32,302 Travellers, representing 0.7% of the total population of the Republic of Ireland. They have experienced many of the forms of social exclusion and racism that other such excluded, ethnic groups have faced in Europe and elsewhere in the world (Asimopoulos et al., 2019; Goian et al., 2012; Urh, 2011). These include limited access to employment, education, disability and housing services. Policy makers have been particularly focused on problems of housing. An expert group which reviewed Irish Traveller accommodation provision reporting that the numbers of families living in unauthorized encampments had fallen to 529, but families involuntary sharing accommodation had increased to 933 and the numbers in emergency accommodation for homeless people has grown significantly (Joyce et al., 2019). Travellers living in social housing often face hostile, racist attitudes from other communities (Bhreatnach, 2006). The psycho-social sequelae which follow from such racism and prejudice often leads to mental health problems (Brown, 2020).
Some of these issues are compounded by problems of definition and law. James (2021) highlights the way in which governments and agencies tend to conflate the categorization of Roma, Gypsies, and Travellers as one community of difference. This, she argues, can be explained by the application of neoliberal practices and discourses that privilege concepts of individualism, competition, and the primacy of capital over the diversity of human experience. Even where there are opportunities for legal remedies, there is often variation in state responses. For example, although there has been some convergence in law and policy between the two jurisdictions on the island of Ireland, Fanning and Michael (2018) identify differences in the way that the states fail to meet international obligations in ethnic monitoring and the delivery of key services. Even when the state belatedly recognized Irish Travellers as a distinct ethnic group protected by law, rights to services are often not protected and administered evenly (Dave & O’Grady, 2019; Haynes et al., 2021).
The social work response
It is important to consider how ideas about racism and anti-racism may, or may not, inform policy, practice and professional education in these contexts. With its origins in the civil rights movements of the 1960s, to theoretical iterations in the late 20th and early 20th century (Tedam & Cane, 2022), anti-racist theories have been influential but impediments to their use in everyday practice remain. In the UK, for example, the early promise that anti-racist practice could become mainstream in social work education and services have been gradually eroded (Graham, 2000). This has coincided with the introduction of neoliberalist policies shaping practice narratives that failed to address the needs of disadvantaged communities, including Irish Travellers (Brockmann & Garrett, 2022). It has been argued, however, that meaningful interventions are possible using a range of strategies and skills, informed by anti-racist theories. These include educational strategies in dealing with conscious or unconscious thoughts (Bussey et al., 2022) and behaviors which often contribute to racism and other forms of oppression. When practitioners critically understand their own personal and professional identities and envisage how these fit with issues of the structural causation of racism, then traditional notions of power, privilege, and professional knowledge can be realistically addressed (Cocker & Hafford-Letchfield, 2014).
Some of these issues are reflected in literature on Irish social work and health care services for Travellers. It has been reported that these communities are often suspicious or distrustful of social work interventions (McDonagh, 2018). Allen (2012), in her study of support service provision for Traveller women experiencing domestic violence, found evidence that the community tended to avoid mainstream community services (social workers, police, and other professionals) and how social workers’ lack of awareness of the Irish Traveller cultural context often exacerbated victims’ problems. Bracken (2014) highlighted forms of ethnic and cultural identification that affected probation officers’ (social workers employed in the criminal justice system) views. Daly (2016) has argued that, among some social workers, there is a reluctance to “take risks and tolerate uncertainty and ambivalence,” and suggests that competent practice should not be based on “highly defended and reactionary ways of thinking.” Where social work provision is informed by human rights principles, alongside sensitive, thoughtful relationship-building with Traveller communities, positive outcomes are possible. Irish Traveller organizations have also identified several principles of good practice which should underpin social work with this community (Pavee Point, 2010). These include: the provision of Traveller-friendly services which allow for authentic engagement and representation; policies and services which do not inadvertently discriminate against Travellers; social inclusion policies; cultural awareness and anti-racism training; employment of Travellers in service provision; Traveller consultation on service evaluation; and collection of data on the ethnic and cultural background of service users, to highlight any gaps or inequalities.
Although there are specificities to the Irish context, practitioners can also learn from other, international approaches that address such discrimination and racism (Ferguson et al., 2018); opportunities for social workers to be more flexible about the range of practices are available to meet the needs of Traveller populations. A number of authors (Notcutt, 2017; Ryder, 2002, 2014) argue that social workers should embrace forms of inclusive community development that are asset-based and designed to build community organization through grassroots support., Such interventions have been shown to build trust and increase self-esteem and confidence among the younger generations of Travellers. Forms of group work and community development can also act as a bridge between statutory social work services and Travellers (Cemlyn, 2000, 2008; Lau & Ridge, 2011). Whilst recognizing the importance of conflating ethnic difference and needs of Travellers with Roma and Gypsies, it may be possible to learn from diverse experiences. Urh (2011) explains how Slovenian social workers should consider how to adapt anti-racist education and training to address the discrimination faced by Roma populations and that these strategies will better prepare practitioners to deal with unmet needs Even then, professionals must be constantly aware of dominant, racist popular discourses in everyday practice (Asimopoulos et al., 2019). In the provision of education for minority Roma children a system approach is necessary to service provision if effective change and empowerment is to be achieved (Kandylaki & Kallinikaki, 2018).
In conclusion, anti-racist practices can be delivered by social workers but only when simplistic, individualized, often pathologizing approaches are challenged. It is then possible to acknowledge the structural determinants of power and racism in the way that social work and other services are delivered to Traveller communities. The use of policy-based practice, advocacy skills (Weiss-Gal & Gal, 2020) and systems-based interventions that attend to levels of the individual, family and community (Healy, 2022) can also complement relationship building approaches in these contexts.
Study context
The national evaluation explored the role of a specialist social work service for Irish Travellers that was established following recommendations of Report of the Commission on Itinerancy (Commission on Itinerancy, 1963). Since then, the service has been subject to change and revision, reflecting shifting policy making, service user and social work expectations. The later Task Force on the Travelling Community (1995, p. 11) acknowledged the contribution that the social worker plays as “advisor, negotiator, co-ordinator and support/enabler of Travellers.” The Department of Housing Planning Community and Local Government's (2014) Implementation Plan on the State Response to Homelessness 2014–2016 also referred to the role of social workers and their transferrable skills which could be utilized to address some of the needs of homeless people. However, this report did not acknowledge that in many areas, social workers were also involved in much nonhousing service provision. The expert group also highlighted the important role played by local authority social workers in supporting the formulation of planning processes, for example, by collating data on the local Traveller population (Joyce et al., 2019).
The service is delivered across all local authorities in Ireland, but is uneven in spread, for example, in terms of numbers of social workers and levels of seniority. There are also a range of types of service formation. Social workers are employed in different forms of professional teams including built environment professionals, community, and housing workers. Of note is the way in which the social work role has changed since the establishment of the service. Irish social workers are now a state regulated profession with a minimum entrance academic threshold of an honors and usually a masters’ degree (Christie et al., 2015) with continuous professional development (CPD) as a requirement of registration.
Methodology
The evaluation was commissioned on the recommendation of an expert group appointed by the housing minister who was responsible for the provision of housing and accommodation for Irish Travellers, because of concerns about the purpose and effectiveness of this specialist social work service (Joyce et al., 2019). It involved a mixed method, stakeholder approach which is frequently used in health and social care settings (Marczak et al., 2022; Zhen-Duan et al., 2022). The aims of the evaluation were to:
Examine and review the current roles, responsibilities, and functions of specialist social workers delivering services to Traveller families and communities. Consider and review the effectiveness of this specialist social work service. Make recommendations regarding future service delivery approaches that would best serve the Traveller communities. A review of policies, memoranda, and administrative data on local authority social workers and related staff, as well as central government data on the social work service and Travellers’ socioeconomic characteristics, culture, and accommodation conditions. The collection and analysis of submissions (n = 31) by a range of stakeholder organizations. A survey of social workers (n = 40) who were contracted to deliver these services. It focused primarily on gathering factual information about: academic and professional qualifications and experience; length of time in the post and grade; scope of duties and nature of their employment contract; access to training and continuing professional development; and relationships with other employees’ and day to day activities and roles. Interviews with social workers (n = 19) and Traveller representatives (n = 19). These were used to probe the themes that emerged from the results of the online survey. The interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim.
The following data were gathered during the period September to December 2022:
Data analysis
The statistical software package (SPSS) was used to analyze and present descriptive survey data. The MAXQDA qualitative software package was used to analyze the content of submissions and individual interviews to identify relationships between themes and relevant contextual issues (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). The nonlinear design of MAXQDA facilitated the recursive analytic process of comparing views and themes and aided review and analytic thinking (Miles et al., 2014). To describe, analyze, and interpret the cultural context and behavior of participants, an ethnographic approach was adopted. Analysis was guided by Braun and Clarke's thematic analysis described as: “a method for identifying, analysing and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 79). This approach was chosen because of its capacity to encapsulate large amounts of data, provide thick descriptions and facilitate the identification of similarities and differences across the dataset. Phase one involved familiarization with the depth and breadth of the various sources of data including re-checking to avoid slippage, and to ensure that the transcripts honored and remained true to the voices of the participants. A first list of ideas contained derived from this initial analysis was compiled. In phase two initial codes were generated through further analysis and interpretation of the meanings in the data (Miles et al., 2014, p. 72). Phase three involved re-focusing the analysis and searching for themes. A review and refinement of themes took place in phase four. Some were discarded and others were merged where there was not a clear and identifiable distinction between them. This phase was complete when the themes were categorized into a coherent pattern and when review of the individual themes ensured validity by accurately representing the meanings in the data set. Themes were named and defined in phase five and for each theme, detailed analysis was undertaken about the scope and content, and how it fitted into the overall aims of the evaluation. Finally, in phase six, a final report was produced using the set of fully worked out themes, the rich and complex story of the data is presented below.
Research ethics
Respondents could withdraw at any point and all names were be replaced by numbers, to de-identify all participants and recordings of interviews would be destroyed after transcription. The study was overseen by a research steering group which was consulted on the design of the survey and interview schedules and findings.
Findings
Characteristics of the social work service
The analysis of administrative and government data, submissions and the survey findings revealed key demographic characteristics of the social work service. Central government funding is currently supporting a total of around 40 local authority social workers, representing a marginal decline of five posts in over two decades (Delap & Kelleher, 2005). Importantly the survey managed to capture the views of nearly all existing social workers (n = 40). Over half were aged between 30 and 50 years, and about a third over 50 years and generally had long periods of service. Most were women, and all but one identified themselves as White Irish. They are required to be registered with the state regulatory body, CORU, educated to degree level, and 30 held masters degrees. All social work respondents had extensive prior professional experiences in areas such as child protection, domestic abuse, disability and community care services and support for care leavers, before joining the service. Six out of the 40 held senior social work positions.
An analysis of the submissions by stakeholders revealed some variation about how the effectiveness of the service was perceived. Most of these were submitted by Traveller organizations (n = 13) and senior, nonsocial work, managers of the service (n = 13). There was only one submission from the specialist social work service organization (representing the views of the 40 social workers), so comparative judgments about these perspectives are tentative. For all submissions there was a fairly even distribution across the five-point Likert scale (very ineffective, quite ineffective, somewhat effective, quite effective, and very effective). Traveller organizations were more likely to judge the service as very ineffective (2/13) or quite ineffective (1/13) or somewhat effective (3/13) than the local authority managers, only two of whom scored at the lower two scales. Conversely almost half of the local authority managers scored the service at the two highest scales (compared to 2/13) in the case of the Traveller organizations. The one submission by the social work representative organization graded the service as quite effective. Despite the limitations of the method of data collection, these findings suggest divergence in perceptions between those delivering services and the Travellers who receive these services, an issue that is also reflected in the findings from interviews discussed later in the article.
The demand on the service appeared to have increased in recent years due to changes in national policies, and some of these issues were reflected in survey data. Although nearly all respondents acknowledged that they had a job description, it was apparent many of these had become outdated, with 13/40 respondents judging these less than a 40% match to current duties. Social workers were also asked to consider what percentage of their week was spent on dealing with Traveller-related issues. Of the 40 respondents, 10 spent 80–100% and 4/40 60–80% of their time with Travellers. It is important to note, however that 18/40 were spending less than 60% of their time directly with Travellers, and on other social work-related duties and tasks. Finally, respondents were provided with an opportunity for open text responses to explain what they felt were rewards and challenges in the role, particularly given these changing practice and policy contexts. The rewards most commonly stated were: providing positive support to Travellers; improving living conditions; and enabling access to housing and other rights. The most common challenges were issues in dealing with racism and discriminatory attitudes to Travellers; a perceived lack of influence in decision-making with the employing organization; work overload and burnout. Social workers also reported problems in dealing with what they felt were unrealistic demands, hostility, anti-social behavior, and aggression by the Traveling community towards them. Finally, respondents responded positively to a proposal for a national framework that would energize and modernize the service.
Interview findings
In this section, the data from interviews with social workers and Traveller representatives are synthesized, helping to reveal complementary but also contrasting views and experiences of the service, as described in the following five themes.
A changing social work role
Perhaps because of the changing nature of contemporary social problems faced by Travellers, as well as shifts in their expectations about social work and other services these new roles were often raised in survey and interview data. Practitioners appeared to be moving away from traditional interventions that characterized the early decades of the organization (described in the policy literature review and quantitative findings above). This included more involvement in areas of disability, mental health, addiction, domestic violence and child protection, that hitherto had been the case. The following example illustrates the changing, generic nature of the role as described by one social worker: So, it could range from engaging with people around their mental health. It could be engaging around child protection. It could be engaging around disability, advocating for external services, working with them to get them services, various things like that. So that's where I see social work. (Social worker 10)
There was, however, some dissonance, between what social workers viewed to be an evolving, more contemporary role, and some Traveller representatives who remained confused about what social work meant for them: Like there's two schools of thought around the social worker. Why do Travellers have a social worker assigned to them or what's the role of a social worker? How do they work with the social work department in Tusla [the state childcare and protection agency], you know, in the area? What's their role? Are they there to support Travellers or are they there to report Travellers, you know? (Traveller representative 1) I think the national Traveller organisations think that we should be gotten rid of and that we shouldn’t be in the post, and that it should be members of the Travelling community should be speaking on behalf of the Traveller community. So, I don’t think we’re well thought of. I don’t think we’re—yeah, I don’t think so at national level. (Social worker 1)
The recent introduction of state regulation of the profession appears to have been important factor in the way social workers were envisaging new practices:
… I think perhaps what they needed from social workers way back in the early stages has changed. In addition, the social work profession has developed … we are all registered with CORU [the state regulator] and I suppose what we want to deliver has changed from the origins of the service as well. (Social worker 19)
Most social workers felt that the introduction of a national practice framework, would enable more standardized, transparent services for Travellers:
I suppose my ideal thing would be a national framework. … But I think, in general, just a framework that says that every social work service has to have criteria, it has to have a referral system, it has to have the capacity to have a grading list rather than just everything being bombarded into us. (Social worker 19)
The literature on anti-racist practice, described above, highlights the importance of education and training in underpinning interventions in this field. Several social workers appealed for a more coherent approach to CPD:
Yeah, we find the whole CPD thing quite difficult because it is such an obscure area … so we’ve not even really common ground that we can really develop training programmes that would really suit us. (Social worker 19)
In conclusion, this key theme revealed a commonly reported perception, reported by both sets of respondents, that the social work role had changed substantially since the origins of the service. Contemporary policy, practice and legal drivers implied the need for a broader notion of the skills, knowledge and values that would equip social workers to engage in more systemic ways which may have the support of Travellers and their representatives.
Social work assessment based on need, not ethnicity
As discussed above, the literature reveals how organizational and practitioner attitudes and interventions often reinforce structural discrimination, racism and resistance to change (Tedam & Cane, 2022). One of the existing, outdated legacies of the Irish social work service was an assumption by employing agencies that Travellers should be automatically referred to a social worker on first contact. This practice was widely criticized by both social workers and Traveller representatives. This social worker argued for changes based on principles of self-determination that should be applied to all clients, Travellers as well as non-Travellers: You don’t need to go to a social worker because you are a Traveller. You go to a social worker if there's a need for it. And there's a lot of Travellers that don’t need social worker service. They’re very capable people. They live their lives. They might phone for advice. They go to [housing]maintenance themselves. They deal with their rent issues themselves. If there's a challenge that they can’t overcome, then they would turn to us. (Social Worker 3) I just don’t feel that it is right that, as soon as a Traveller presents, that they’re kind of syphoned off to one person … I feel that it should be the same front door for everybody. … It should be certainly generic in nature. I feel very passionate about this, I think having a specific Traveller service actually creates a scenario, a get-out-of-jail for the local authorities in respect of engagements with Travellers because it's left to the social worker. (Social worker 19)
Traveller representatives were concerned about this stigmatizing referral and allocation policy: I just think it's wrong that there's an assumption that instinctively every Traveller has to be assigned a social worker, that every Traveller is a social work case, without any proper rigorous assessments of individuals or families… (Traveller representative 8) [we should] only process families who have a particular vulnerability or families who look for social worker support in their housing process. That it would be a whole social work team approach and not just one social worker identified as the Traveller social worker. (Traveller group submission)
The views represented in this theme highlight substantive concerns about an outdated organizational process where this form of specialist referral and allocation system was widely criticized by both sets of respondents. Although the literature has consistently described the levels of discrimination and racism faced by Travellers in Irish society, this older, specialist model of social work service delivery appears, ironically, to reinforce these forms of disadvantage.
The importance of relationship building and advocacy skills
In dealing with the needs of Travellers, it is crucial that social workers are equipped with key relationship building, to build partnerships that may result in clients achieving fair access to services (Pease, 2020). Both sets of respondents acknowledged the centrality of this issue for the service. For example, one social worker stated: “… what I value most is my relationship with Travellers, just how I’m able to engage with them.” (Social worker 5) Another example illustrates the enduring nature of some of these relationships: They might give me a ring when their kids turn 18 or they get married and it's lovely to hear from them again. It's that type of relationship. … It's a very nice aspect of my work when I get a phone call from somebody that I haven’t heard from in eight years because their eldest child has got married. And they come in with this gorgeous-looking daughter or son and I’m delighted. It's nice, it's pleasant, and that's lovely. (Social worker 11) I think that might be mixed. You know, it depends what circumstances are. I feel that I have good relationships with the Travellers in my area, that my support is appreciated. Then, if we can’t achieve the individual's wishes this can change. (Social worker 3)
A number of social workers used a range of strategies to build authentic relationships with Travellers, as one respondent put it: “I feel that we have made a special effort to consult Travellers individually,” and another wanted to work more collaboratively to achieve “a better understanding, show we are thinking the same way and that we are not the enemy,” (Social worker 1) and “Travellers should be determining the road and it's really, really important that they should be at the center.” (Social worker 10) The following practitioner also explained how advocating for Traveller groups could challenge forms of discrimination: I love the opportunity of being able to advocate for a very marginalised group and I like being able to do that. I like being able to do that well, I suppose. And as a social worker, I suppose I love the opportunity to challenge discrimination and oppression on a daily basis. That's obviously what the social workers kind of live for. (Social worker 5)
When the relationship between social workers and Travellers was based on respect, dialogue, and engagement, this could produce positive outcomes, as described by this Traveller representative: The social worker that we have, we engage in dialogue. We communicate on Traveller accommodation issues … the social worker is there at my beck and call. When we have an emergency, for example—and we’ve had a couple under Covid-19—we will talk and communicate and get things done. (Traveller representative 8)
The findings suggest that, for these social workers, there was an appreciation of how a range of skills and strategies, when used purposefully with Traveller individuals, families and communities, were effective is gaining trust to deliver services. When this occurred, Travellers tended to understand and appreciated such approaches.
Impediments to practice
Despite attempts to develop forms of advocacy for Traveller communities, organizational resistance often created difficulties and was draining in terms of time and effort: Wow, like, if we weren’t here … I would dread to think, in some respects. Because the organisation is big. Like you do need to keep the Traveller piece on the table in a certain way. You know, and it takes effort … like we agreed a monthly meeting in relation to Traveller accommodation. That takes huge effort each month to try and make sure that it becomes a priority. (Traveller representative 8) As a sole practitioner in an organisation that's not a social work organisation it can be very—I suppose it can be lonely, it can be challenging, and you’re kind of a lone voice because there's only the one perspective in relation to social work and sometimes it can be difficult to kind of articulate that voice because it very much depends on the views of the other people around the table. (Social worker 1)
Another, problematic organizational issue is captured by the idiom “Betwixt and Between” (Kelleher et al., 2023), helping to explain ambiguities in the social work role. Many social workers were concerned about the few opportunities to affect policymaking yet the organization often expected practitioners to deliver contentious or inadequate services, which they had no influence in shaping. The following Traveller respondent appeared sympathetic to such dilemmas: So, the social worker that we have in this county she hasn’t got the full authority of making decisions. She has to go through her so-called bosses, which happens to be the director of housing, which is negative, really negative around Traveller issues. (Traveller representative 15)
Even when social workers were proactively challenging what they viewed to be unjust policies, they were often silenced. As this respondent put it, the social worker, …was a genuine person and he believed in people having rights and having, you know, equality and having Traveller-specific accommodation, and he really fought with me [i.e., supported me]. But he was often told by the civil servants, which were his bosses, to shut up—and this would be to embarrass him at Local Traveller Accommodation Consultative Committees. (Traveller representative 12)
There was, however, some recognition and positive regard for those social workers who were “troublemakers” and worked on behalf of the community: I think personally I think that local authorities saw the Traveller social workers as being a problematic position. They were almost [seen as] troublemakers, you know. They were forcing their hand, or they were seen as not part of the team, working as part of the team inside in the local authorities, they’re working for the community. (Traveller representative 11)
Even though social work respondents recognized the need to challenge issues of discrimination and racism, some Traveller respondents, however, were not clear how this could be achieved: In terms of the level of racism and discrimination and stereotyping and oppression that's gone on and the kind of historical piece [context] around Travellers and the State, then, you know, no, I don’t see a role for a social worker in the remit of Travellers accessing the local authority for accommodation. (Traveller representative 6)
This lack of understanding was sometimes created by a mutual lack of trust or understanding of the social work role: I think the thing is that we [Travellers] don’t understand the [social worker] roles that they’re being given by the local authority as well as them not understanding the cultural needs … you know, the cultural needs of [Traveller] people. (Traveller representative 18)
These findings revealed the complexities of the social work role in organizational structures that appeared to offer few opportunities for the profession to affect important areas of policy change. Consequently, practitioners were often placed in ambiguous, problematic relationships with Travellers who sometimes could not understand the relatively powerless position of social workers within the organization.
The impact of COVID
There is a growing literature on how Covid has had variable impact upon social work clients, with some authors focusing on the problems experience by Black and Ethnic Minority communities (Hudson et al., 2022). This final theme reports upon perceptions about how Covid-related issues had affected the service, both negatively and positively (the data gathered for the evaluation took place during periods of lockdown in Ireland). Social workers were concerned about issues of client accessibility and stressors on the service. At the start of the pandemic there was a concern that, Travellers as a particularly disadvantaged community, would be particularly adversely affected by the impact of Covid-19. In this context it was likely that the service would be less comprehensive and responsive, when compared to the system, pre-pandemic: I have seen mainstream organisations pull away from Travellers and it's been frightening, really, really frightening to think that we’re saying that in some respects that Travellers can access generic systems, but those systems really aren’t in a space to respond to the actual place where travellers are. It really kind of highlighted that you do need to protect this particular group as well by ensuring the services are there. (Social worker 8)
In conclusion, these findings reveal how the service (as occurred in other forms of social work provision during the pandemic, internationally) sought to tailor social work practice to meet the needs of Traveller communities. These included more reflexive approaches, leading to changes to the service, in particular new forms of communication and engagement and potential for relationship building which may continue in the system, post-pandemic.
Discussion
The findings of this national evaluation highlighted a sense of historical contingency and change in the service. The evaluation was funded by government because of longstanding concerns that the service was outdated, both in terms of the experiences of Travellers and expectations about the social work role. These concerns were compounded by adverse policy and legal contexts, notably systems of structural racism and discrimination which inevitably affected and constrained the social work service delivery (Delap & Kelleher, 2005). As discussed in the review of literature, it is possible for social work to find, and advocate for, progressive roles in these services but this often requires systems-based approaches which are embedded in education and practice and where individual interventions are not isolated from policy-making and organizational responses (Brockmann & Garrett, 2022; Weiss-Gal & Gal, 2020). As in other research on this topic (Dave & O’Grady, 2019; Haynes et al., 2021), the evaluation found informal and formal types of racism and prejudice experienced by Travellers in wider society, sometimes reproduced by problematic organizational decision-making processes. Many respondents were concerned about the outdated practice that Traveller clients would automatically be allocated a social worker, regardless of need. A somewhat more encouraging finding was the way that both social work and Traveller representative respondents insisted that such practices should be challenged.
The problematic, limited space for social work decision making at policy level tended to leave them exposed to resentment about what service they could offer to clients. In addition, social workers and Traveller representatives, as well as other stakeholders, were critical of the outdated nature of roles and job specifications (Joyce et al., 2019). The evaluation findings reinforced the perception that social work practice was shifting towards a much broader remit where there was much more engagement with different types of services and interventions (McDonagh, 2018) than had been envisaged by the planners of the original provision. This would suggest that there was some potential for change and service improvement that could be more responsive to Traveller community needs, aspirations for self-determination.
As discussed above, the literature on the efficacy of social work interventions highlights the importance of relationship building throughout processes of referral, assessment, and intervention (Ryder, 2014). The findings confirm that where this was achieved, then trust was built, and meaningful interventions were more likely to be achieved. Conversely where this did not happen avoidance and even hostility occurred. When social workers were prepared to challenge their employers’ plans and interventions on housing and other issues, or advocate for better health and social care services, they were more likely to be acknowledged and recognized by Travellers. On the other hand, if social workers were less effective in this role or isolated and unsupported by their employer, Travellers appeared less likely to trust their views and interventions.
The findings also revealed how many respondents from both groups sought to find ways of improving the service, through two proposals. The move toward a state regulated social work profession which occurred in the last decade has fundamentally changed the position of social workers in Ireland. They are now required to engage in regular education and training to update skills, knowledge and values and to address issues of discrimination and disadvantage in everyday practice. Social work respondents were generally in favor of improved forms of CPD that would enhance their practice with Travellers. A second proposal (also supported by some Traveller representatives) was the development of a national framework that would ensure consistency and delivery of service in this important area of practice.
Study limitations
The evaluation used a convenience sampling process to access respondents and gather data. For these reasons it is not possible to extrapolate the findings to all social workers and possible stakeholders in Ireland.
Conclusion
This national evaluation of the Irish specialist social work service used a mixed method approach to explore the factors that have shaped the service sought the views of important stakeholders in considering how change could improve the lives of Traveller families and communities. As discussed earlier in the article, in many ways the findings from the evaluation mirror how services for Travellers have developed in other jurisdictions, highlighting the ways that social workers struggle with role identity in the face of social and organizational impediments to practice. It is argued that social work in this field requires practitioners to be skilled, culturally literate and committed to dealing with issues of social justice, discrimination and racism if they are to play a full role in such changes. This should entail a commitment to challenging organizational impediments and a greater role in policy making.
A final, important concern might be that such evaluations have limited impact on service change; what is needed is a constant “watch” and review of such services through the application of new forms of research, policy and practice. As many of the social workers and Traveller representatives in Irish evaluation made clear, this is an ongoing project which implies that organizational leaders must build trust and alliances with Travellers, and the professions who deliver services to deal with the many complex problems faced by the community.
Footnotes
Ethical approval
Ethical approval for this project was given by University College Dublin Human Sciences Research Ethics Committee, # HS-E-20-84.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The evaluation was funded by The Housing Agency on behalf of the Minister of State at the Department of Housing, Local Government and Heritage, Republic of Ireland.
Declarations of conflict of interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Authors contributions
All authors were involved in designing the evaluation methodology and data collection methods. All authors conducted interviews. MN, JP and JK took a lead in analysing the data with all four authors reviewing coding for major themes. JC took a lead in selecting the data to be described and discussed in this article. MN led the overall evaluation.
