Examining the antecedents and outcomes of satisfaction in film festival context: Further evidence of validity of the eudaimonic feelings construct

Abstract

Within festivals and events, film festivals are among the fastest growing cultural events in the world and are recognised as bringing environmental, sociocultural and economic benefits to host tourism destinations including enhanced well-being. These festivals are an important marketing strategy for developing destination image and attracting interest towards a destination. However, there are limited studies on the film festival experience exploring the antecedents of participants’ satisfaction. This study examines the relationship between eudaimonic feelings, novelty, local culture, nostalgia, perceived quality, satisfaction, and behavioural intentions. Data were gathered during the last 3 days of the Penedo Film in the City of Penedo, Northeast Brazil using a questionnaire. A total of 97 valid questionnaires were collected from the festival attendees. Findings show that only eudaimonic feelings and perceived quality are predictors of satisfaction. To the best of authors knowledge, this study is the first to examine the perceived experience of participants in a film festival context from a positive psychology perspective and providing further empirical support for construct validity of eudaimonic feelings. The findings contribute to the existing tourism literature on film festivals by identifying key antecedents (eudaimonic feelings and perceived quality) and outcomes (behavioural intentions) of satisfaction with film festival. One of the main managerial implications includes engaging film festival participants in co-creation processes and in promoting group discussions about a specific movie with an appealing and social relevant theme.

Keywords

Event experience film festival eudaimonia eudaimonic feelings satisfaction

Introduction

Events are pervasive in today’s societies and have become strongly associated with the places where they are held. They help in shaping and promoting the place, in addition to playing a central role in the way places are perceived and consumed (Zhang et al., 2021; Wise and Harris, 2019). For example, film festivals are unique events that provide an alternative to mainstream movies that dominate the global market (Bachman and Hull, 2023) and are acknowledged as offering a transformative environment and distinctive atmosphere for celebration (Báez-Montenegro and Devesa-Fernández, 2020). Today, film festivals have increased in numbers (Wang and Kao, 2023) and complexity (Park et al., 2011), and simultaneously are capturing the attention of academics in social sciences (Bachman and Hull, 2023).

Film festivals are associated with positive economic and social impacts on the places where they are held (Bachman et al., 2022; Kendall et al., 2021). People attend film festivals for several reasons including novelty seeking, entertainment, escapism, and experience sharing (Yolal et al., 2019; Báez-Montenegro and Devesa-Fernández, 2017). Although some of these motivations are shown to have a positive correlation with participants’ satisfaction (SAT from here on) towards an event (Báez-Montenegro and Devesa-Fernández, 2017; Cosma et al., 2016), existing literature lacks in describing how participants experience film festivals and how their perceived experience influences SAT towards the event. Participant’s perception of economic, cultural, and environmental impacts of film festival are linked to their SAT (Jani and Mwakyusa, 2021). In addition, participant’s perceptions of cultural/educational and community benefits are found to directly associate with subjective well-being (Bachman et al., 2022). Moreover, the formation of SAT judgements depends on the consumer's experience (Oliver, 2010; Baker and Crompton, 2000), indicating that participant’s perceived experience is a strong a predictor of SAT.

Prior research has established the experiential dimensions of consumption as one of the main research streams in the field of tourism and hospitality (Kim and So, 2022). However, there are limited studies examining experiential dimensions of complex events, such as film festivals. Park et al. (2010) used the experience economy framework and dimensions as predictors of the escapist experience and SAT towards an international film festival in Korea and analysed the effect of escapist experience and traveler SAT as mediators of the other experiential dimensions on behavioral intention. Their findings indicate that film festivals have a positive impact on visitor SAT and in experiencing escape from a daily routine. In another study, Rajaobelina et al. (2019) examined the mediating role of place attachment between affective and cognitive experience and word-of-mouth in Canadian music and film festivals. Their findings revealed a positive impact of attendees’ affective and cognitive experience on place attachment, and the positive link between affective experience and word-of-mouth. Place identity was found to play a full mediating role with respect to cognitive experience and word-of-mouth. These studies point to the complexity of experiencing film festivals. Thus, other experiential dimensions related to the film festival experience should be explored by drawing on new concepts and frameworks in the existing literature, namely the experiential dimensions of memorable tourism experience scale, such as hedonism, novelty, local culture, refreshment, meaningfulness, involvement, and knowledge (Kim et al., 2012), which have been widely used to predict SAT in different contexts, including festivals (Hosany et al., 2022).

Positive psychology (PP from here on) theories and frameworks are an alternative source for understanding perceptions of the event experience and derived psychological rewards and benefits (Filep et al., 2015). PP has received attention from tourism and event researchers (e.g., Vada et al., 2020; Filep and Laing, 2019) in a variety of contexts, such as music festivals (Saragih and Amelia, 2020; Neuhofer et al., 2020; Rodríguez-Campo et al., 2019), sports events (Armbrecht and Andersson, 2019), and LGBTQIA+ parades (Zhou et al., 2021). Few studies have been conducted in the context of film festivals. In addition, PP builds on the concept of eudaimonia (Medeiros et al., 2020). Eudaimonia has been explored in a tourism context (Lee and Jeong, 2021; Medeiros et al., 2020; Lengieza et al., 2019) to differentiate some tourism experiences from others which are purely hedonic. Eudaimonic experiences are described as those related to self-connectedness and authenticity, positive social interactions, sense of self-actualisation, meaningfulness, and life purpose. Accordingly, recent studies propose new approaches to the tourism experience through conceptualization and measurement of eudaimonia (Medeiros et al., 2023; Demeter et al., 2022). Demeter et al. (2022) define eudaimonia at both state and trait levels, as measured by a single-item each one, and Medeiros et al. (2023) propose a multi-item approach for measuring eudaimonia at state-level, introducing the construct eudaimonic feelings (EF). Their study verified high internal consistency among the construct’s 19 items single-factor structure.

Studies examining the relationship between eudaimonia and SAT are limited and controversial as in some cases eudaimonia is considered an outcome of SAT (Chen and Li, 2018) and in others a predictor (Lee and Jeong, 2021), with plausible arguments for both hypotheses. This study draws on theoretical and empirical studies positing that eudaimonic experiences only exist accompanied by hedonic enjoyment (Saragih and Amelia, 2020; Lee and Jeong, 2019), and the situation in that activities that are supposedly high on eudaimonia but low on hedonic enjoyment is a theoretical null (Waterman et al., 2008; Waterman, 2005). As eudaimonia relates to self-identity and it is experienced as pleasurable (Waterman, 1990, 1993), it therefore participates in the formation of SAT judgements. In tourism contexts, eudaimonia proxies, such as self-expressiveness (Bosnjak et al., 2016) or self-identification (Karagöz and Uysal, 2023; Alrawadieh et al., 2019), were found to have positive effect on subjective well-being and SAT.

This study’s aim is three-fold: (1) to examine the perceived experience of participants to a film festival from a PP perspective; (2) to analyse the relations among experiential dimensions, SAT, and behavioural intentions, and (3) to examine further empirical support to construct validity for EF (Medeiros et al., 2023). Five experiential constructs are examined as SAT antecedents: novelty, local culture, nostalgia, perceived quality, and eudaimonic feelings (EF). In addition, perceived quality and SAT are analysed as predictors of behavioural intentions.

To provide further evidence of construct validity for EF, its predictive power is examined. A step further in construct validation concerns the construct relation to an external criteria variable (AERA, 2014). A relatively well-established methodology for construct validation in behavioural sciences relates to empirically analysing the construct position in a hypothesised nomological net (Preckel and Brunner, 2017). Structural equation modelling (SEM) techniques are useful for this purpose (Preckel and Brunner, 2017). Partial least squares path modelling (PLS) is popular in the tourism and hospitality fields (Ali et al., 2018; Do Valle and Assaker, 2015), mainly because of its flexibility in dealing with variables lacking normality, its prediction orientation (Latan, 2018; Shmueli et al., 2016), and recommended application for theory development through exploratory research (Sarstedt et al., 2021; Hair et al., 2019; Latan, 2018). Thus, the PLS approach was chosen for this study. Data were gathered during the last 3 days of the Penedo Film Circuit 2021 in the City of Penedo, Northeast Brazil using a questionnaire. A total of 97 valid questionnaires were collected. Results show the predictive power of EF, providing further evidence for the validity of the construct.

The study contributes to the existing literature on PP in tourism and event studies. Firstly, this study examines the perceived experience of participants to a film festival from a PP perspective. Secondly, it presents complementary empirical support to construct validity for EF, recently introduced in the tourism literature (Medeiros et al., 2023). Thirdly, the study points to theoretical advancements that supports the relation between eudaimonia as an experience and SAT. Lastly, as managerial implication, in providing empirical evidence that eudaimonia influences SAT, the study highlights the potential of film festivals in offering personal meaningful experiences, which can offer valuable insights for event design and management.

In the theoretical background section, the fundamentals for the EF construct are presented. Then, the rationale for the hypotheses of SAT antecedents and outcome is developed. The method section presents the procedures for data collection and analysis. The following section presents the results, while the last section discusses the results and suggests managerial implications and orientations for future research.

Theoretical background

Eudaimonic feelings

In its classic conception, eudaimonia is defined as “living truly who one is” (Norton, 1976: p. 216). The search for understanding, expressing, and realising the true self is the foundation for achieving eudaimonia (Schlegel et al., 2016). Although, in its classical sense, it does not refer to a subjective state, contemporary psychology recognises the existence of subjective experiences that accompany the pursuit of that which is worthy in one’s life (Huta and Waterman, 2014). Many psychological theories of motivation, development and human functioning assume eudaimonia as a subjective experience (Huta and Ryan, 2010; Ryff and Singer, 2008). Thus, it “includes states and/or pursuits associated with using and developing the best in oneself, in accordance with one’s true self and one’s deeper principles” (Huta, 2013: p. 201).

EF are defined as “the cognitive-affective appraisals (subjective feelings) towards self-fulfilment, authenticity, truthful social interactions, and personal meaningfulness concerning a tourism experience” (Medeiros et al., 2023: p. 2), and conceptualised at state (situational) level, i.e., considering the phenomenological category to which eudaimonia falls (Huta, 2022). The construct items capture four feelings as perceived by individuals: (i) feelings of recovery and relief; (ii) feelings of truthful social interaction; (iii) feelings of self-fulfilment and authenticity; and (iv) feelings of life purpose and meaning. Moreover, conceptualisation of EF assumes that individuals’ appraisals towards these different feelings are merged, perceived as “a broad sense of self” (Medeiros et al., 2023: p. 2). Accordingly, the construct simultaneously captures the four feelings as perceived by the individuals when they appraise the experience (Medeiros et al., 2023). Depending on which feeling is more salient, the “eudaimonic feelings spot” sheds light towards that specific feeling (see Figure 1). This spot can be larger or narrower depending on how strong or weak the four core feelings are.

Figure 1.

Eudaimonic feelings.

Feelings of recovery and relief relate to the restorative capabilities of tourism as a leisure activity, and incorporate the facet of disconnection or detachment, which allows distancing from everyday life and momentary disconnection from social roles, providing freedom to act more spontaneously (Brown, 2013; Kim and Jamal, 2007). This aspect is associated with the psychological mechanism of detachment-relaxation that enables homeostasis (Newman et al., 2013; Vittersø, 2011). In addition, feelings of recovery also capture hedonic elements, such as tension relief and relaxation, which are experienced as pleasant (Newman et al., 2014; Vittersø, 2011).

Feelings of truthful social interaction capture the social aspects of leisure activities, recognised as opportunities for socialisation, including participation in events (Morgan, 2006). Theoretical approaches on eudaimonia consider the dimension of relationships as essential for the individual’s well-being and well-functioning (Carvalho and Sheppard, 2022; Lee et al., 2022; Selem et al., 2022). Tourism experiences provide opportunities for spontaneous social interactions and a sense of community (Kirillova et al., 2017; Matteucci and Filep, 2017; Campos et al., 2016).

Feelings of self-fulfilment and authenticity connect to the notion of true self, which is the core element of eudaimonia in both conceptions, classical and modern (Smallenbroek et al., 2017; Huta, 2016b; Schlegel et al., 2016). Authenticity “involves having one’s own personal experiences, whether thoughts, emotions, needs, desires, preferences or beliefs, processes captured by the injunction to ‘know oneself'” (Harter, 2002: p. 382).

According to the existential authenticity approach in tourism (Kirillova et al., 2016; Kirillova and Lehto, 2015; Brown, 2013; Kim and Jamal, 2007), feelings of self-discovery and self-fulfilment are experienced through the disconnection from daily routine and the entry into a liminal space-time that enables self-reflection, contact with the self, and self-expression. Such feelings, combined with the recognition and development of individual potential, enable meaningful life choices, which, in turn, guide a healthy formation of self-identity (Waterman et al., 2008; Waterman, 1990, 1993).

Finally, seeking for meaning is a fundamental tool for humans to impose stability on life (Baumeister and Vohs, 2002). Most psychological approaches to eudaimonia include meaning as essential to well-being, with high consensus found in conceptualizations of eudaimonia, assumedly because it incorporates the notion of life purpose, common in the idea of a virtuous life or the search for what makes a life well lived. Purpose in life is the individual’s ability to find meaning and direction in personal experiences and to set goals for own’s life (Ryff and Singer, 2008). Therefore, meaning is one the most important element of eudaimonia (Huta, 2016a).

Activities such as travel, learning about different cultures, meeting new people and visiting places create experiential values, excitement, and provide meaning to people lives (Sirgy and Uysal, 2016: p. 490). Tourism experiences can be perceived as personally meaningful (Liu and Kirillova, 2021; Kirillova et al., 2016, 2017; Wilson and Harris, 2006). The conceptualization of EF construct also assumes that feelings of meaningfulness and life purpose are directly connected to the other three feelings: recovery and relief, truthful social interaction, and self-fulfilment and authenticity, when they are jointly experienced (Medeiros et al., 2023).

Hypothesis development

Satisfaction

SAT is defined as “the consumer’s fulfilment response” (Oliver, 2010: p. 8). Judgment of SAT occurs through the perception that the consumption experience meets the expectation in a pleasant way (Oliver, 1999). In the context of tourism, SAT is considered as the comparison of the travel experience with pre-trip expectations (Chen and Chen, 2010). However, this purely cognitive approach evolved to the understanding that it also involves affective states (Sthapit et al., 2019; Medeiros et al., 2015). Accordingly, SAT is best defined as a “cognitive-affective state derived from a consumption experience” (Del Bosque and San Martín, 2008: p. 553).

Eudaimonia occurs only with pleasurable subjective states, i.e., hedonic feelings are a necessary condition for eudaimonia (Lee and Jeong, 2019). It is hypothesised that individuals experience a “broad sense of self” (Medeiros et al., 2023: p. (2) as a pleasurable subjective state. Since SAT synthesises individual cognitive-affective evaluations towards the experience, it is thus expected that “feeling eudaemon” directly affects SAT judgements. Therefore, EF are directly related to SAT. The following hypothesis is stated:

EF is positively related to SAT

Novelty

Novelty (NOV) is described as the subjective feeling that emerges when the individual is facing something new and different from daily life, thus living an opposite experience to what is already known (Mather, 2013). Novel stimuli are essential to the tourism experience (Campos et al., 2020; Mitas and Bastiaansen, 2018; Lee and Crompton, 1992) and NOV seeking helps in interpreting tourist psychology and behaviour (Skavronskaya et al., 2020). NOV is one of the main motivations for tourism (Farber and Hall, 2007; Dunman and Mattila 2005) including film festival attendance (Yolal et al., 2019; Báez-Montenegro and Devesa-Fernández, 2014). NOV relates to the event experience (Geus et al., 2016), experience memorability (Skavronskaya et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2012), and destination SAT and loyalty (Toyama and Yamada, 2012, 2016). Based on these studies, the following hypothesis is proposed:

NOV is positively related to SAT

Local culture

Learning about local cultures (LC) and interacting with them is one of the main motivations for traveling (Coudounaris and Sthapit, 2017; Zhang et al., 2021). Interaction with LC has been found to be one of the main factors that make travel experiences memorable (Coelho and Gosling, 2018; Chandralal and Valenzuela, 2015). However, there is lack of consensus in the existing literature about the role of LC in tourism experience. Concerning the effects of LC on SAT, the literature is argumentative. Direct effects of LC on SAT were found among heritage tourists (Rasoolimanesh et al., 2022), but not among nature-based tourists (Gohary et al., 2018). In the context of a cultural festival in China, interaction with LC was the main motivator for participants (Zhang et al., 2021). These findings suggest that the importance of LC on tourism experience seems to be context dependent, including the type of the event (Crompton and McKay, 1997). It is assumed that LC may influence the festival experience and is an antecedent of SAT. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Local culture is positively related to SAT

Nostalgia

Nostalgia (NOST) was first used in medical studies to describe a pathological condition involving external manifestations of individuals caused by homesickness, being later expanded to describe a positive emotional experiential and spatial context (Christou, 2020). NOST is considered a multidimensional construct in which positive and negative emotions connect the past, the present and the future, depending on the individual’s personality traits and subjective perception of time as well as varying between different cultural boundaries (Han and Bae, 2022; Jain et al., 2019).When described as vicarious, NOST can be understood as a personal feeling based on experiences, autobiographical and vicarious memories, including fantasy and historical elements, but also a singular desire for an imagined past. It permeates past-oriented cognition driven by the search for authenticity (Chi and Chi, 2020).

In the context of heritage tourism, memory is related to recollections and the combination of contradictory feelings of pleasure and sadness, both provoked by various ideas about a collective past, usually idealised through places, enactments of history, cultural heritage, landscapes (Chi and Chi, 2020; Christou, 2020; Leong et al., 2015) or even sensory stimuli, like sounds or smells (Han and Bae, 2022). Moreover, external elements, and surroundings, both tangible or intangibles, such as facilities, local atmosphere that encourages participation, involvement, and socialisation can trigger NOST (Han and Bae, 2022; Christou, 2020).

Historical NOST is found to predict SAT (Verma and Rajendran, 2021) and to influence behavioural intentions (BI) by provoking positive emotions (Chi and Chi, 2020). It is expected thus that historical settings can evoke NOST, which, in turn, can influence SAT. The setting of this study is a national historical heritage officially recognized in Brazil. The focal event takes place in the heart of the city historic centre; therefore, it is assumed that historical settings may influence the festival participants’ experience. Thus, the following hypothesis is stated:

Nostalgia is positively related to SAT

Perceived quality

Perceived quality (PQ) is defined as the consumer’s assessment of the product or service performance (Baker and Crompton, 2000). There are numerous studies indicating PQ as a predictor of SAT (Chi et al., 2020; Muskat et al., 2019; Hallak al., 2018), including BI (Cole and Illum, 2006; Cronin et al., 2000; Baker and Crompton, 2000). Concerning film festivals, some PQ dimensions were found to be predictors of SAT, such as responsiveness, supportive amenities, quality of facilities, scheduling, accessibility (Park et al., 2011), and performance (Tkaczynski, 2013). In addition, SAT has a strong direct impact on BI in many sectors, including tourism and hospitality (Xu et al., 2021; Assaker et al., 2020; Chen and Jiang, 2019). Direct effects of PQ on BI have also been reported in the literature (Abdou et al., 2022; Meeprom and Silanoi, 2020). Thus, PQ is an antecedent of SAT and can explain BI. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are analyzed in this study’s context:

H5a

Perceived quality is positively related to SAT

H5b

Perceived quality is positively related to BI

Behavioural intentions

Behavioural intention refers to behaviour subsequent to an experience (Abdou et al., 2022). Analysis of future behaviour is considered critical to an understanding of how tourism destinations and tourists’ satisfaction may evolve (Afshardoost and Eshaghi, 2020), as intentions assumedly lead to future consumption responses (Jeong et al., 2019). According to Oliver (2010, 1999), loyalty is a deep commitment to a consistently preferred product or service in the future, despite situational influences and marketing efforts that can cause behaviour change. When applied to tourist destinations and events, loyalty has been linked to future BI, described by Oliver (1999) as conative loyalty. Despite criticism on method bias in measuring SAT and BI, in addition to assessing the relationship between them (Dolnicar et al., 2013), robust evidence in the literature consistently indicates the strong relationship between those constructs (Tanford and Jung, 2017). Thus, it is here assumed that SAT is an antecedent of BI. The relationship between SAT as an antecedent of BI in event contexts has been widely explored in the literature (Fytopoulou et al., 2021; Meeprom and Silanoi, 2020; Borges et al., 2020). Based on this evidence, the following hypothesis is proposed:

SAT is positively related to BI

Figure 2 summarises the conceptual framework of this study.

Figure 2.

Conceptual model.

Method

Setting

This study was conducted during the Penedo Film Circuit 2021 (PFC), held from November 22-28 in the City of Penedo, Northeast Brazil. The PFC has been taking place since 2011, organized and managed by the Federal University of Alagoas, in cooperation with the Penedo City Hall and with the support of national institutions for development. The event’s program is diversified. In addition to film screenings, the festival includes lectures, round tables, and workshops aimed at stimulating the audio-visual market, as well as the local production chain, both for the public and national cinema enthusiasts. The program integrates artistic and cultural presentations and musical shows, with an emphasis on local artists and other non-competitive works, such as children movies and national feature films. Activities are entirely free of charge, with free access to the public, and venues provide accessibility conditions for the elderly and people with mobility and hearing impairments.

Research design and sample

The research design included application of a cross-sectional survey using a non-probabilistic sample (Bryman, 2012). Convenience sampling was used due to its cost-effectiveness, efficiency and simplicity to implement (Sthapit et al., 2019). Convenience sampling is widely applied in many fields, such as organizational studies and other related social sciences (Bryman, 2012). Authors acknowledge that this technique has the limitation of sample representativeness and thus of findings generalizability. Data were collected during the last 3 days of the event (November 26-28, 2021). Trained interviewers selected from a group of college students approached participants and informed them about the research objectives and asked about their willingness to participate in the study. A total of 97 valid questionnaires were collected with no missing answers.

The sample size is in accordance with recommendations by Hair et al. (2017, p. 26). For the significance level (α) of 0.05, the statistical power (1-□) of 0.80, and the minimum expected R² of 0.25, for five predictors (the number of arrows pointing to SAT; see Figure 3), the recommended sample size is 45. Considering the observed smallest significant absolute path coefficient in the model (in this case, b = 0.432; see also Figure 4), a posteriori calculation of the minimum sample size requirement using the inverse square root and exponential gamma (Kock, 2018; Kock and Hadaya, 2018) revealed that the 97 observations was sufficient to detect significant relationships between constructs with medium to large effect sizes (f² ≥ 0.15).

Figure 3.

Structural model. Note: results obtained through the bootstrap procedure of 5000 resampling, with corrected bias (BCa). Values on the inner model arrows: “path coefficient (p-value)”. EF = Eudaimonic feelings; LC = Local culture; NOV = Novelty; NOST = Nostalgia; PQ = Perceived quality; SAT = Satisfaction; BI = Behavioural intentions.

Figure 4.

PLS-SEM model evaluation (adapted from Sarstedt et al. 2021; Hair et al., 2017).

Many respondents (73.2%) had previously participated in the event and were residents (76.29%). The distribution of the sample in terms of gender showed a small majority of women (52.58%) compared to men (43.3%). Three respondents (about 3%) declared themselves non-binary, and only one respondent chose not to declare the gender. On average, the participants in the sample were 30.3 years old, with the lowest value being 18 years old and the highest 75 years old (standard deviation = 12.66 years old). Table 1 shows the sample characteristics.

Table 1.

Sample characteristics.

		f	%
Gender	Male	42	43.30
	Female	51	52.58
	Nor male nor female	3	3.09
	Rather not to declare	1	1.03
Marital status	Single	64	65.98
	Married	19	19.59
	Separated or divorced	3	3.09
	Stable union	10	10.31
	Widowed	1	1.03
Formal education	Elementary	9	9.28
	High school	56	57.73
	Superior (undergrad)	25	25.77
	Specialization/MBA	1	1.03
	Master degree	1	1.03
	PhD	5	5.15
Age	Min	18
	Max	75
	Mean	30.30
	Median	25
	Standard deviation	12.66
	Skewness	1.50
	Kurtosis	1.37
First time participation	Yes	26	26.80
First time participation	No	71	73.20
Resident	Yes	74	76.29
Resident	No	23	23.71

Note: Absolute and relative frequency are shown for all variables, except for Age. n = 97.

Measurement

Constructs were modelled as reflective and measured using adapted items found in existing studies. A five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree) was used to measure all items, except items related to Perceived Quality, whose 5-point response anchors were: 1 = Very bad; 2 = Bad; 3 = Average; 4 = Good; 5 = Excellent (Mondo et al., 2020). Constructs definitions are shown in Appendix 1.

Data analysis methods

Univariate non-normality was verified by Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests. Therefore, multivariate normality was not assumed (Pituch and Stevens, 2016; Gnanedesikan, 1997). Mahalanobis D² distance measure did not find multivariate outliers (Hair et al., 2014). The model was tested using structural equation modelling with partial least squares path model (PLS-SEM; hereafter PLS) because data characteristics (non-normality), and the PLS prediction orientation (Latan, 2018; Shmueli et al., 2016). Evaluation of the PLS results followed the guidelines suggested by Sarstedt et al. (2021) and others (Hair et al., 2017, 2019, 2020) as shown in Figure 4.

Results

Measurement model

Item loadings ranged between 0.642 [PQ7] to 0.950 (SAT2) (Sarstedt et al., 2021). Cronbach’s α and composite reliability (Raykov, 1997) found items’ reliability for each construct. In addition, average variance extracted found constructs’ convergent validity. Discriminant validity was found as examined by the heterotrait-monotrait ratio (Sarstedt et al., 2021; Henseler et al., 2015) (Table 2).

Table 2.

Measurement model assessment.

	α^a	CR^b	AVE^c	Heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT)^d,e
	α^a	CR^b	AVE^c	[A]	[B]	[C]	[D]	[E]	[F]	[G]
[A] Local culture	0.872	0.906	0.657
[B] Eudaimonic feelings	0.956	0.960	0.558	0.826
[C] Behavioural intentions	0.855	0.901	0.696	0.631	0.702
[D] Nostalgia	0.771	0.851	0.590	0.685	0.626	0.355
[E] Novelty	0.736	0.847	0.650	0.626	0.797	0.394	0.548
[F] Perceived quality	0.868	0.896	0.519	0.566	0.553	0.609	0.372	0.328
[G] Satisfaction	0.929	0.955	0.875	0.559	0.668	0.808	0.373	0.468	0.702

Note: Values of reference: α ≥ 0.70; CR ≥ 0.70; AVE ≥0.50 (Sarstedt et al., 2021).

^aCronbach α.

^bComposite reliability.

^cAverage Variance Extracted.

^dHTMT values ≤0.85 indicate discriminant validity between constructs (Henseler et al., 2015).

^eConfidence intervals of 95%, obtained from bootstrap procedure for 5000 resampling, with corrected bias (BCa) did not include value one for any of the constructs.

Structural model

Assessment for multicollinearity showed lack of issue since the tolerance values observed were below 0.20, corresponding to VIF (variance inflation factor) values below 5 (Hair et al., 2017). Figure 4 shows the structural model, including all construct indicators and respective loads, the path coefficients, the corresponding p-value (parenthetical), and the coefficients of determination (R²) of the endogenous constructs. In turn, Table 3 shows t-statistics and the significance of the path coefficients, and respective effect sizes.

Table 3.

Values, significance (t statistic and p-value), 95% confidence intervals of path coefficients and effect sizes.

Hypothesis/Path	Path coefficient (b)	t statistic	p-value	95% confidence interval		Effect size (f²)^a	Conclusion
Hypothesis/Path	Path coefficient (b)	t statistic	p-value	2.5%	97.5%	Effect size (f²)^a	Conclusion
H1: EF → SAT	0.489	3.578	0.000	0.234	0.774	0.153	Accepted
H2: NOV → SAT	−0.004	0.032	0.975	−0.210	0.237	0.000	Rejected
H3: LC → SAT	−0.027	0.177	0.860	−0.373	0.232	0.001	Rejected
H4: NOST → SAT	−0.066	0.984	0.325	−0.197	0.065	0.006	Rejected
H5a: PQ → SAT	0.432	4.374	0.000	0.232	0.607	0.296	Accepted
H5b: PQ → BI	0.161	1.502	0.133	−0.050	0.364	0.036	Rejected
H6: SAT → BI	0.636	6.199	0.000	0.425	0.824	0.538	Accepted

Note: results obtained through the bootstrap procedure of 5000 resampling, with corrected bias (BCa).

^aValues of reference: f² < 0.02 => null effect; 0.02 ≤ f² < 0.15 => small effect; 0.15 ≤ f² < 0.35 => medium effect; f² ≥ 0.35 = large effect (Sarstedt et al., 2021; Cohen, 1988).

EF = Eudaimonic feelings; LC = Local culture; NOV = Novelty; NOST = Nostalgia; PQ = Perceived quality; SAT = Satisfaction; BI = Behavioural intentions.

Of the five constructs hypothesised as antecedents of SAT, only EF and PQ were significant predictors. Taken together, the antecedent constructs accounted for 56.2% (R² = 0.562) of the SAT variance. The path coefficient EF → SAT (b = 0.489) implies that, when increasing one standard deviation unit of EF, SAT will increase by 0.489 standard deviation unit, keeping all other independent constructs constant. That relationship revealed a medium effect size (f² = 0.153). Likewise, also with medium effect size (f² = 0.296), the path coefficient PQ → SAT (b = 0.432) indicates that an increase of one standard deviation of PQ will increase by standard deviation 0.432 unit in SAT. In contrast, NOV, LC, and NOST were not found predictors of SAT in the PFC context. Their respective path coefficients were neither relevant nor significant and had null effect sizes.

In turn, SAT and PQ accounted for 56.6% (R² = 0.566) of variance of the BI. However, only the path coefficient SAT → BI (b = 0.636) was significant and relevant, with large effect size (f² = 0.538). It should be noted, however, that even though the path coefficient PQ → BI (b = 0.161) was not significant, it had a small effect size (f² = 0.036), suggesting a possible relationship, albeit not highly relevant. Thus, the result pointed to a relationship between PQ → BI predominantly mediated by SAT.

Model’s predictive power assessment

Stone-Geisser’s Q² values obtained through the blindfolding procedure of cross-validation of construct redundancy (Hair et al., 2017), found predictive relevance of the model. In addition, PLS predict (Shmueli et al., 2016, 2019) found high model’s out-of-sample predictive power. Tables 4 and 5 show these results.

Table 4.

Cross-validation of construct redundancy^a.

	SSO^b	SSE^c	Q² (=1-SSE/SSO)
Local culture	485.000	485.000
Eudaimonic feelings	1843.000	1843.000
Behavioural intentions	388.000	246.340	0.365
Nostalgia	388.000	388.000
Novelty	291.000	291.000
Perceived quality	776.000	776.000
Satisfaction	291.000	152.217	0.477

Note: Results obtained by blindfolding procedure, with an omission distance of 7.

^aValues of reference: 0 < Q² < 0.25 => small predictive relevance; 0.25 ≤ Q² < 0.50 => medium predictive relevance; Q² ≥ 0.50 => high predictive relevance (Hair et al., 2019).

^bSum of Squared Observations.

^cSum of Squared Errors.

Table 5.

Model’s out-of-sample predictive power^a.

	RMSE^b		MAE^c		Q² prediction
	PLS	LM^d	PLS	LM	PLS	LM
BI1	0.477	0.577	0.360	0.432	0.385	0.099
BI2	1.013	1.430	0.749	1.093	0.087	−0.818
BI3	0.548	0.764	0.419	0.558	0.350	−0.262
BI4	0.603	0.876	0.461	0.667	0.338	−0.398
SAT1	0.549	0.753	0.411	0.554	0.353	−0.219
SAT2	0.485	0.602	0.371	0.441	0.471	0.184
SAT3	0.538	0.690	0.387	0.515	0.375	−0.027

Note: Results obtained from PLS predict procedure, with 10 repetitions and 10 sub-samples.

^aValues of reference: (1) Q² prediction value for each indicator ≤0 => the model has no predictive power; (2) PLS-SEM < LM (for RMSE or MAE): (a) for none of the indicators => absence of predictive power, (b) for some indicators => low predictive power, (c) for most indicators => medium predictive power, (d) for all indicators => high predictive power (Sarstedt et al., 2021; Shmueli et al., 2019).

^bRoot Mean Squared Error.

^cMean Absolute Error.

^dLinear Model.

The importance-performance map analysis (IPMA) extends the standard results reporting of path coefficient estimates by adding a dimension that considers the average values of the latent variable scores (Ringle and Sarstedt, 2016). IPMA contrasts the total effects, representing the predecessor constructs’ importance in shaping a certain target construct, with their average latent variable scores indicating their performance (Ringle and Sarstedt, 2016). The rational is to identify predecessor constructs that have a relatively high importance for predicting the target construct (those with strong total effect), but also have a relatively low performance (low average latent variable scores) so that improvements can be implemented (Hair et al., 2018). Figure 5 shows the importance-performance map having SAT as the target construct.

Figure 5.

Importance-performance map. Note: Ceteris paribus, the increase of “1 point” in each predictor construct impacts on Satisfaction in the same magnitude of the respective value of the total effect (non-standardized) (Hair et al., 2018). Non-standardized total effect: LC = −0.026; NOV = −0.003; NOST = −0.046; EF = 0.435; PQ = 0.531

Although all constructs presented relatively high performance, only EF and PQ showed high importance in predicting SAT. Constructs’ average scores ranged as follows: NOST ( $\bar{x}$ = 3.66), NOV ( $\bar{x}$ = 3.87), EF ( $\bar{x}$ = 4.13), PQ ( $\bar{x}$ = 4.23), LC ( $\bar{x}$ = 4.42). LC showed the highest performance, but it is placed in the upper left quadrant of the map, as NOST and NOV, indicating that those constructs were not relevant to explain SAT. On the other hand, EF and PQ are found in the upper right corner of the map, with PQ in the extreme point, which means that these two constructs performed very well, in addition to present high relevance in predicting SAT.

Discussion and conclusions

This study conducted on the PFC experience highlights distinctive characteristics of participants that help to understand the results obtained. Firstly, most of the participants are residents and attendees at the event in previous editions. This may explain why NOV, NOST, and LC were not found to be significant predictors of SAT. The PFC has been taking place for 11 years, being the second biggest event in the city of Penedo. In this sense, the event seems to be integrated into the daily lives of residents and is not perceived as novel for most participants in the study.

Regarding NOST, Penedo is a historic city that preserves many buildings from colonial and imperial Brazil. The event takes place in the heart of the historic centre. However, taking results into account, the feeling of NOST is not associated with evaluations on SAT towards the event. As most participants in the study were residents, i.e., people who were born, grew up and live daily in or nearby Penedo’s settings and landscapes, it is suggested that the feeling of “living in a past time” does not match their current reality. This same interpretation applies to NOV. Previous research supports the claim that both novel experiences and the desire to live novel experiences are strong motivators of participation in touristic activities (Campos et al., 2020). More concretely though, Vittersø, Prebensen, Hetland, and Dahl’s (2017) study considered eudaimonia as interest, immersion, and engagement involved in the pursuit of important goals during experiences. Findings from this research showed that eudaimonic experiences usually present higher degrees of novelty, which in turn may lead to higher propensity to behave accordingly, as in recommending the experience to others. A subsequent study from Blomstervik et al. (2020) found the varying importance of novelty in the relationship between physical staging and human interaction on behavioural intention. These results suggest that sample characteristics are important to consider when it comes to analysis of NOV.

Results suggest that LC does not impact SAT with the festival experience, which may be because, for most participants, they are part of the local way of life, preventing them from being particularly attentive to distinct aspects of LC which may be memorable only to non-local participants.

As expected, PQ is a predictor of SAT, corroborating existing studies (Chi et al., 2020; Hallak et al., 2018). In addition, results indicate that PQ does not directly lead to BI. This finding supports the existing literature that establishes SAT as a mediator between PQ and BI (Muskat et al., 2019; Žabkar et al., 2010), including in events context (Pivac et al., 2019). Therefore, PQ accounted for the judgement’s formation on SAT, which, in turn, did lead to BI.

The study’s main contribution concerns theoretical and practical implications from empirical evidence obtained for EF as a predictor of SAT. Primarily, the study presents complementary empirical support to construct validity for EF based on its predictive power. This helps to lessen conceptual noise and fragmentation in the field, in addition to offering accurateness for the measurement of eudaimonia in future research. In addition, in conceptualizing eudaimonia at state-level, the EF construct provides an understanding of how people cognitively represent their appraisals based on their own true selves in a given situation. As presented in Figure 1, EF conceptualization suggests that truthful social interactions, recovery and relief, self-fulfilment and authenticity, life purpose and meaning are evaluated by people as merged feelings that are perceived as a broad sense of self.

Moreover, this research showed that eudaimonia participates in the formation of judgments concerning SAT, thus making a theoretical contribution in this respect. The connection between self-identity and positive feelings, well-being and functioning is known in psychology since William James (1890), who posited that the sense of self-identity derives from the perception of continuity and unity in the mind, experienced as a feeling of intimacy and a feeling of warmth, providing an overall positive physiological feeling. This connection is consistently established in studies on identity in developmental psychology (Meca et al. 2015; Pilarska, 2014; Schwartz et al., 2013; Ritchie et al., 2013). The self-expressiveness theory of identity (Waterman, 1990) equates personal expressiveness with eudaimonia, defined as the feelings of optimal experience that accompany the search for fulfilling one's potential and capabilities, in engaging in self-expressive activities (Waterman, 1995; 1993). Individuals involved in such activities are shown to have high psychosocial functioning (Waterman et al., 2013). Self-expressiveness is found to be a stronger predictor of healthy outcomes than hedonic enjoyment in physical exercise (Lee et al., 2014). In addition, in sport tourism context, self-expressiveness is found to moderate the effect of hedonic enjoyment on personal happiness (Bosnjak et al., 2016), i.e., when self-expressiveness is high, the influence of hedonic enjoyment on personal happiness is significantly lessened. Thus, research supports the positive link between a sense of self (i.e., eudaimonia) and positive feelings, well-being, and functioning. As a result, it is claimed that individuals cognitively experience a broad sense of self as a pleasurable feeling, which, in turn, influences SAT towards an event. This corroborates existing studies that found identity proxy (self-identification) as a predictor of SAT (Karagöz and Uysal, 2023; Alrawadieh et al., 2019).

Concerning EF, the results of this study also indicate that film festivals such as the PFC exceed hedonia since they elicit true self or self-connectedness related feelings (Lee et al., 2016). Assumedly this finding aligns with current participants’ motivations that point to their need of achieving personal meaningfulness. The PFC program design includes activities potentially leading to self-expressiveness, such as acting and directing workshops. As the majority of participants are young people, exploring opportunities for identity commitments by engaging in those activities can promote a sense of self-actualization and self-expression (Waterman et al., 2013). It can be concluded that if the film festival experience addresses such needs, participants’ satisfaction towards the event increases. In sum, by capturing situational appraisals of sense of self, the EF construct is capable of predicting participants’ satisfaction.

This study sheds light on the relation between eudaimonia and satisfaction, presenting theoretical and empirical support for considering eudaimonia as an antecedent of SAT. As practical implications, some insights follow from this study that illuminate the complexity of the film event experience and the need to pay attention more deeply to event participants’ needs and aspirations. More specifically, co-creative strategies in event design and management are increasingly capturing the attention of managers and destinations (Haanpaa et al., 2016; Crowther and Orefice, 2014). Consequently, recommendations lead to decisions on how to increase attendees’ participation and engagement. Festival planners and managers should emphasize activities that engage participants in co-creation processes, such as acting, directing, or screen playing, and in promoting group discussions about a specific movie with an appealing and social relevant theme. Additionally, the co-creative approach is also suitable to expedite participants’ involvement in the design stage of the film festival event, as their creative contributions may lead to format and activities proposition more adequate to induce EF and consequently SAT with the event. Storytelling-based activities with a co-creation orientation may include brainstorming or sketching with a purposive sample of participants (Antchack and Ramsbottom, 2020).

Lastly, to promote an image associated to positive human and community development to potential new attendees, institutional communications should explore the social bonding, self-expressiveness, and self-identity aspects of the PFC experience, showing the event as an opportunity for self-development and social-cultural interactions, in addition to the already familiar attractions. This is especially useful to induce interest in new goers and potential tourists to the city during the festival, increasing participation of non-locals in the event.

Limitations and future research

This study was limited by the fact that only a questionnaire was used for data collection. The generalizability of the results is limited because of the small sample size and the use of a convenience sample. In addition, the participants in the study were mostly residents and repeated attendees, so future studies would benefit from using a more multicultural sample base including first-time goers. These new variables expectedly may lead to different results, namely on the novelty dimension. To reach external validity, as previously suggested by Medeiros et al. (2023), larger and heterogenous samples are needed in future research. Moreover, the study participants were mostly women and on average 30 years old. Based on these considerations, future research directions include comparative studies using different types of demographics, e.g., first-time and repeat participants, domestic and international tourists, group or solo travellers could yield meaningful insights to add to those gained through the present study. Other directions are possible to increase the importance of this study’s model in the context of the research stream on the tourism and event experience, e.g. including EF in nomological nets may provide confirmatory evidence of its predictive power. Examination of antecedents of EF will greatly enhance the understanding of the eudaimonic experience. Two promising research paths follow from this study: one, the eudaimonic orientation (Huta, 2016c) and the other, the psychological traits (e.g., personality) (Anglim et al., 2020), which may contribute to uncover whether, or to which extent, eudaimonia is person- or context-triggered. With the expansion of analysis into these paths, it is also suggested that future studies should compare EF in different tourist settings, testing the hypotheses of whether EF is more related to personal traits or orientations, or otherwise to the experience provided by the specific type of tourism (volunteering, sun, sand, and sea, adventure, or religious). The same could be applied to events, for example, film festivals, music festivals, and sport events (examining spectators vs performers experiences), or food festivals.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (project UIDB/04020/2020).

ORCID iDs

Ana Cláudia Campos

Erose Sthapit

Lara Brunelle Almeida Freitas

Construct definition

Construct	Definition	Number of items	Source
Eudaimonic feelings	The cognitive-affective appraisals towards self-fulfilment, authenticity, truthful social interactions, and personal meaningfulness concerning a tourism experience	19	Medeiros et al., 2023
Novelty	The sense that one is experiencing something new and different compared to everyday life	3	Bloomstervik et al., 2020; Coelho and Gosling, 2018; Chandralal and Valenzuela, 2015; Kim and Ritchie, 2014
Local culture	The experience of interacting with the local culture and its people	5	Coelho and Gosling, 2018; Chandralal and Valenzuela, 2015; Kim and Ritchie, 2014
Nostalgia	The cognitive and affective experience of creating a mental image about a missed collective past in the present experience	4	Zhang et al., 2021; Chi and Chi, 2020; Leong et al., 2015
Perceived quality	The individual’s evaluation towards the event (or its specific aspects) based on perceived performance	8	Mondo et al., 2020
Satisfaction	The cognitive-affective response of fulfilment towards the event experience	3	Zhang et al., 2021; Oliver, 2010; Del Bosque and san Martín (2008)
Behavioural intentions	The individual’s commitment toward the event observed as consistent positive attitudes (repeating attendance to the event, event recommendation, word-of-mouth)	4	Sthapit et al., 2019; Báez-Montenegro and Devesa-Fernández, 2017; Oliver, 2010; 1999

Author Biographies

Sandro Alves de Medeiros holds a PhD in Business Administration from the Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Sandro is Full professor at Federal University of Alagoas and leads Competurhs research group for Competitiveness, Marketing, and Innovation in Tourism, Hospitality, and Services.

Ana Cláudia Campos holds a PhD in Tourism, a MA in Tourism Management, and a BA in Philosophy. Currently she is Assistant Researcher at CinTurs, the Research Centre for Tourism, Sustainability and Well-being, University of Algarve, Portugal. Her research interests are in tourism marketing, destination management and marketing, tourism experience, tourist psychology, storytelling, living labs, innovation and co-creation in tourism. Ana has published in tourism and hospitality journals, such as Tourism Management or Current Issues in Tourism.

Erose Sthapit is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Marketing, Retail and Tourism at Manchester Metropolitan University. His research interests includes memorable tourism experience, interactive value formation and Airbnb. He has published in different tourism and hospitality journals, as Journal of Travel Research and International Journal of Hospitality Management.

Lara Brunelle Almeida Freitas holds a Master in Tourism and specialized in Tourism Planning. Currently she is a doctoral student in the PhD program in Regional Development and Agribusiness at State University of Western Paraná, Brazil. Lara is also a researcher at Tourism Group of Federal University of Alagoas and at the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel, Brazil. She lectures at the State University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Dourados, Brazil. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2203-1698

Tiago Savi Mondo graduated in Tourism and Hospitality and in Physical Education and specialized in Project Management. He holds a Master and a PhD in Administration, and a Post-Doctorate in Tourism. Tiago is Full Professor at the Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Santa Catarina, Brazil.

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