Proteinuria is a common laboratory finding in children. It might represent a benign condition or herald the presence of a serious underlying renal disease or systemic disorder. Investigation to confirm a diagnosis or seek reassurance is important. This paper discusses the various causes of proteinuria, and those aspects of the history, physical examination, and the laboratory tests that will help determine the cause or reassure that a serious problem is not currently present.
Abitol C., Zilleruelo G., Freundlich M. and Strauss J. (1990). Quantitation of proteinuria with urinary protein/creatinine ratios and random testing with dipstick in nephrotic children. J Pediatr; 116, 243-247
2.
Bergstein J.M. (1996). Conditions particularly associated with proteinuria . In: Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 1498-1499 (Nelson WE, Behman RE, Kliegman RM, Arvin AN). Philadelphia: WB. Saunders Company
3.
Dodge W.F., West E.F., Smith E.H., Bunce H. III (1976). Proteinuria and hematuria in schoolchildren: epidemiology and early natural history. J Pediatr;88,327-347
4.
Ettenger R.B. (1994). The evaluation of the child with proteinuria. PediatrAnn; 23,486-494Fogo AB (1998). Proteinuria. In: Pediatric Nephrology, 347-350 (Barratt TM, Avner ED, Harmon WE). Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Glassock R. (1981). Postural proteinuria: no cause for concern. N Engl J Med; 305,639-641
7.
Grubb A. (1992). Diagnostic value of analysis of cystatin C and protein HC in biological fluids. Clin Nephrol; 38 (suppl 1),S20-S27
8.
Harrison N.A., Rainford D.J., White G.A., Cullen S.A. and Strike PW (1989). Proteinuria - what value is the dipstick? Br J Urol; 63,202-208
9.
Jones C.L. and Eddy A.A. (1992). Tubulointerstitial nephritis. Pediatr Nephrol; 6:572-586
10.
Kristal B., Shasha S.M., Labin L. and Cohen A. (1988). Estimation of quantitative proteinuria by using the protein-creatinine ratio in random urine samples. Am J Nephrol; 8,198-203
11.
Leung A.K. and Robson W.L. (1987). Myoglobinuria from child abuse. Urology ; 29,45-46.
12.
Leung A.K. and Robson W.L. (1989a). Polythelia. Int J Dermatol; 28,429-433
13.
Leung A.K. and Robson WL (1989b). Single umbilical artery: a report of 159 cases . AJDC; 143,109-111
14.
Leung A.K. and Robson W.L. (1991). Urinary tract infection in infancy and childhood . Adv Pediatr, 38,257-285
15.
Leung A.K. and Robson W.L. (1992). The association of preauricular sinuses in renal anomalies. Urology ; 40,259-261
16.
Loghman-Adham M. (1998). Evaluating proteinuria in children. Am Fam Physician; 58,1145-1152
Myers B.D. and Guasch A. (1994). Mechanisms of proteinuria in nephrotic humans . Pediatr Nephrol; 8,107-112
19.
Neilson E.G. (1989). Pathogenesis and therapy of interstitial nephritis . Kidney Int;35,1257-1270Norman M.E. (1987). An office approach to hematuria and proteinuria. Pediatr Clin North Am; 34,545-560
20.
Portman R.J., Kissane J.M., Robson A.M., Peterson L.J. and Richardson A. (1986). Use of ß2 microglobulin to diagnose tubulointerstitial renal lesions in children. Kidney Int; 30,91-98
Randolph M.F. and Greenfield M. (1967). Proteinuria: a six-year study of normal infants, preschool, and school-age populations previously screened for urinary tract disease. Am J Dis Child; 114,631-638
23.
Report Of A Workshop By The British Association For Paediatric Nephrology And Research Unit, Royal College Of Physicians ( 1994). Consensus statement on management and audit potential for steroid responsive nephrotic syndrome. Arch Dis Child;70,151-157
Robson W.L. and Leung A.K. (1991). Clinical evaluation of children with proteinuria . Contemp Pediatr, 2(2),17-24
26.
Robson W.L. and Leung A.K. (1992). Post streptococcal glomerulonephritis. Can Fam Physician; 38, 2883-2887
27.
Robson W.L. and Leung A.K. (1993). Nephrotic syndrome in childhood. Adv Pediatr, 40,287-323
28.
Robson W.L., Leung A.K. and Kaplan B.S. (1993). Hemolytic uremic syndrome. Curr Probl Pediatr, 23(1),16-33
29.
Rystand D.A. and Spreiter S. (1981). Prognosis in postural (orthostatic) proteinuria: 40 to 50 year follow-up of six patients after diagnosis by Thomas Addis. N Engl J Med;205,618-621
30.
Shintaku N., Takahashi Y., Akaishi K., Sano A. and Kuroda Y. (1990). Entrapment of left renal vein in children with orthostatic proteinuria. Pediatr Nephrol; 4,324-327
31.
Straub J.P., Baard M.A., du Jour H.A., Verplanke A.J. and Herber R.F. ( 1995). The determination of alpha 1-microglobulin by means of an automated latex immunoassayEur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem; 33,425-431
32.
Tomlinson P.A. (1992). Low molecular weight proteins in children with renal disease. Pediatr Nephrol; 6,565-571
33.
Trachtman H., Bergwerk A. and Gauthier B. (1994). Isolated proteinuria in children: natural history and indications for renal biopsy. Clin Pediatr, 33,468-472
34.
Urizar R.E., Tinglof B.O., Smith F.G. Jr and McIntosh R.M. (1974). Persistent asymptomatic proteinuria in children: functional and ultrastructural evaluation with special reference to glomerular basement membrane (GBM) thickness. Am J Clin Pathol;62,461-471
35.
Vehaskari V.M., Rapola J. (1982). Isolated proteinuria: analysis of a school-age population. J Pediatr, 101,661-668
36.
Vehaskari V.M. (1990). Mechanism of orthostatic proteinuria. Pediatr Nephrol; 4,328-330
37.
Vehaskari V.M. and Robson A.M. (1992). Proteinuria. In: Pediatric Kidney Disease, 531-551 (Edelmann CM, Bernstein J, Meadow SR, Spitz A, Travis LB). Boston: Little, Brown and Company
38.
Wagner M.G., Smith F.G. Jr, Tinglof B.O. Jr and Cornberg E. (1968). Epidemiology of proteinuria: a study of 4,807 schoolchildren. j Pediatr, 73,825-832
39.
Watson A.R. (1998). Proteinuria. In: Forfar and Arneil's Textbook of Pediatrics, 966-968 (Campbell AG, McIntosh N). New York: Churchhill Livingstone
40.
Yoshikawa N., Kltagawa K., Ohta K., Tanaka R. and Nakamura H. (1991). Asymptomatic constant isolated proteinuria in children. J Pediatr, 119,375-379
