Cross-culturally comparable `units of culture' may be found in the experience of immigrants for whom certain experiential domains of meaning from the `first culture' are brought into comparison and contrast with corresponding domains in the `second culture'. The notion of domains is here developed out of `semantic domain' from cognitive anthropology, `cognitive domain' from cognitive linguistics, and `discourse domain' from second language acquisition. The clue to such domains is immigrants' coming to greater second language fluency in some areas of experience and less in other areas (communicative and cultural competence). These distinctions are used to develop a cognitive theory of acculturation that focuses research on cultures within-subjects (within immigrants) in contrast to the traditional focus on comparison between cultural groups (between subjects). This article is speculative and derives from work in cognitive anthropology, ethnographic report, studies of second language acquisition, and psycholinguistic studies of bilingual memory.
Agar, M. (1991) `The Bicultural in Bilingual', Language in Society20(2): 167-81.
2.
Berry, J.W. (1984) `Cultural Relations in Plural Societies: Alternatives to Segregation and Their Sociopsychological Implications', in N. Miller and M. Brewer (eds) Groups in Contact. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
3.
Berry, J.W. (1992) `Acculturation and Adaptation in a New Society' , International Migration30: 69-85.
4.
Berry, J.W., U. Kim, S. Power, M. Young and M. Bujaki (1989) `Acculturation Attitudes in Plural Societies', Applied Psychology: An International Review38: 185-206.
5.
Berry, J.W., Y.P. Poortinga, M.H. Segall and P.R. Dasen (1992) Cross-Cultural Psychology: Research and Applications . New York: Cambridge University Press.
Burton, P., K.K. Dyson and S. Ardener, eds ( 1994) Bilingual Women: Anthropological Approaches to Second-Language Use. Oxford: Berg.
8.
Caulkins, D. (1998) `Consensus Analysis: Do Scottish Business Advisors Agree on Models of Success', in V.C. de Munck and E.J. Sobo (eds) Using Methods in the Field: A Practical Introduction and Casebook. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira.
9.
Chomsky, N. (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
10.
Cortes, D.E., L.H. Rogler and R.G. Malgady (1994) `Biculturality Among Puerto Rican Adults in the United States', American Journal of Community Psychology23: 339-56.
11.
Cuellar, I., B. Arnold and R. Maldonado (1995) `Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican-Americans II: A Revision of the Original ARSMA Scale', Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences17(3): 275-304.
12.
Dana, R.H. (1996) `Assessment of Acculturation in Hispanic Populations' , Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences18(3): 317-28.
13.
D'Andrade, R.G. (1981) `The Cultural Part of Cognition', Cognitive Science5: 179-95.
14.
D'Andrade, R.G. (1984) `Cultural Meaning Systems', in R. Shweder and R. Levine (eds) Culture Theory: Essays on Mind, Self, and Emotion . New York: Cambridge University Press.
15.
D'Andrade, R.G. (1990) `Some Propositions About the Relations Between Culture and Human Cognition', in J.W. Stigler , R.A. Shweder and R.A. LeVine (eds) Cultural Psychology: Essays on Comparative Human Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
16.
D'Andrade, R. (1995) The Development of Cognitive Anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
17.
D'Andrade, R. and C. Strauss , eds (1992) Human Motives and Cultural Models . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
18.
Dilley, R., ed. (1999) The Problem of Context. New York: Berghahn.
19.
Ervin, S.M. and C.E. Osgood (1954) `Second Language Learning and Bilingualism', Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Supplement49: 139-46.
20.
Garcia Alba de Alba, J., V. De Munck, A.L. Salcedo Rocha and Guadarrama L.A. Vargas (1998) `Consensus Analysis: High Blood Pressure in a Mexican Barrio', in V. De Munk and E.J. Sobo (eds) Using Methods in the Field: A Practical Introduction and Casebook. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira.
21.
Gass, S. (1996) `Second Language Acquisition and Linguistic Theory: The Role of Language Transfer', in W.C. Ritchie and T.K. Bhatia (eds) Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
22.
Goodenough, W. (1964) `Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics', in D. Hymes (ed.) Language in Culture and Society: A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology. New York: Harper & Row.
23.
Goodwin, C. and A. Duranti (1992) `Rethinking Context: An Introduction', in A. Duranti and C. Goodwin (eds) Rethinking Context: Language as Interactive Phenomenon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
24.
Hanks, W.F. (1996) `Language Form and Communicative Practices', in J.J. Gumperz and S.C. Levinson (eds) Rethinking Linguistic Relativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
25.
Harvey, P. (1999) `Culture and Context: The Effects of Visibility' , in R. Dilley (ed.) The Problem of Context. New York: Berghahn .
26.
Hoffman, D. (1989a) `Self and Culture Revisited: Culture Acquisition Among Iranians in the United States', Ethos17(1): 32-49.
27.
Hoffman, D. (1989b) `Language and Culture Acquisition Among Iranians in the United States', Anthropology and Education Quarterly20: 118-32.
28.
Holland, D. and N. Quinn , eds (1987) Cultural Models in Language and Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
29.
Holy, L. (1999) `Contextualization and Paradigm Shifts', in R. Dilley (ed.) The Problem of Context. New York: Berghahn.
30.
Hutchins, E. (1996) Cognition in the Wild. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
31.
Hymes, D. (1972) `On Communicative Competence', in J.P. Pride and J. Holmes (eds) Sociolinguistics. Harmondsworth : Penguin.
32.
Kenny, K.D. (1996) Language Loss and the Crisis of Cognition: Between Socio- and Psycholinguistics. New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
33.
Klein, W. (1986) Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
34.
Koven, M.E. (1998) `Two Languages in the Self/The Self in Two Languages: French-Portuguese Bilinguals' Verbal Enactments and Experience of Self in Narrative Discourse', Ethos26(4): 410-55.
35.
Lado, R. (1957) Linguistics Across Cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
36.
LaFromboise, T., H.L.K. Coleman and J. Gerton (1993) `Psychological Impact of Biculturalism: Evidence and Theory', Psychological Bulletin114(3): 395-412.
37.
Langacker, R.W. (1987) Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, Vol. 1: Theoretical Prerequisites. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
38.
Lave, J. (1988) Cognition in Practice. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
39.
Lave, J. and E. Wenger (1991) Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
40.
Marin, G. and R.J. Gamba (1996) `A New Measurement of Acculturation for Hispanics: The Bidimensional Acculturation Scale for Hispanics (BAS)', Hispanic Journal of the Behavioral Sciences18(3): 297-316.
41.
Mendoza, R.H. (1989) `An Empirical Scale to Measure Type and Degree of Acculturation in Mexican-American Adolescents and Adults', Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology20(4): 372-85.
42.
Miller, G.A. (1999). `On Knowing a Word', Annual Review of Psychology50: 1-19.
43.
Novak, J. (1994) `My Typewriter Made Me Do It', in M. Robinson (ed.) Altogether Elsewhere: Writers on Exile. Boston, MA: Faber and Faber.
44.
Ochs, E. (1988) Culture and Language Development: Language Acquisition and Language Socialization in a Samoan Village. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
45.
Pavlenko, A. (1998) `Second Language Learning by Adults: Testimonies of Bilingual Writers', Issues in Applied Linguistics9(1): 3-19.
46.
Pavlenko, A. (1999) `New Approaches to Concepts in Bilingual Memory' , Bilingualism: Language and Cognition2(3): 209-30.
47.
Poole, F.J.P. (1994) `Socialization, Enculturation and the Development of Personal Identity', in T. Ingold (ed.) Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology. New York: Routledge.
48.
Quinn, N. and D. Holland (1987) `Culture and Cognition', in D. Holland and N. Quinn (eds) Cultural Models in Language and Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
49.
Romney, A.K. (1994) `Cultural Knowledge and Cognitive Structure', in G.M.M. Suarez-Orozco (ed.) The Making of Psychological Anthropology. New York: Harcourt Brace.
50.
Romney, A.K. (1999) `Culture Consensus as a Statistical Model', Current Anthropology40 (supplement): S103-S115.
51.
Romney, A.K., S.C. Weller and W.H. Batchelder (1986) `Culture as Consensus: A Theory of Culture and Informant Accuracy', American Anthropologist88(2): 313-38.
52.
Romney, A.K., J.P. Boyd, C.C. Moore, W.H. Batchelder and T. Brazill (1996) `Culture as Shared Cognitive Representations', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences93: 4699-705.
53.
Romney, A.K., C.C. Moore and C.D. Rusch (1997) `Cultural Universals: Measuring the Semantic Structure of Emotion Terms in English and Japanese', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences94: 5489-94.
54.
Romney, A.K. and C.C. Moore (1998) `Toward a Theory of Culture as Shared Cognitive Structures', Ethos26(3): 314-37.
55.
Romney, A.K., C.C. Moore, W.H. Batchelder and T.-L. Hsia (2000) `Statistical Methods for Characterizing Similarities and Differences Between Semantic Structures', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences97: 518-23.
56.
Schiffman, H.F. (1993) `The Balance of Power in Multiglossic Languages: Implications for Language Shift', International Journal of The Sociology of Language103: 115-48.
57.
Schrauf, R.W. (1999) `Mother Tongue Maintenance Among North American Ethnic Groups', Cross-Cultural Research33(2): 175-92.
58.
Schrauf, R.W. (2000) `Bilingual Autobiographical Memory: Experimental Studies and Clinical Cases', Culture and Psychology6(4): 387-417.
59.
Schrauf, R.W. and D.C. Rubin (1998) `Bilingual Autobiographical Memory in Older Adult Immigrants: A Test of Cognitive Explanations of the Reminiscence Bump and the Linguistic Encoding of Memories', Journal of Memory and Language39(3): 437-57.
60.
Schrauf, R.W. and D.C. Rubin (in press) `On the Bilingual's Two Sets of Memories', in R. Fivush and C. Haden (eds) Connecting Culture and Memory: The Development of an Autobiographical Self. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
61.
Shore, B. (1996) Culture in Mind: Cognition, Culture, and the Problem of Meaning. New York: Oxford University Press.
62.
Seliger, H.W. (1996) `Primary Language Attrition in the Context of Bilingualism', Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. San Diego: Academic Press.
63.
Selinker, L. (1992) Rediscovering Interlanguage. New York: Longman.
64.
Silverstein, M. (1976) `Shifter, Linguistic Categories, and Cultural Description' , in K.H. Basso and H.A. Selby (eds) Meaning in Anthropology . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
65.
Silverstein, M. (1987) `The Three Faces of Function: Preliminaries to a Psychology of Language', in M. Hickmann (ed.) Social and Functional Approaches to Language and Thought. New York: Academic Press .
66.
Spradley, J.P. (1979) The Ethnographic Interview. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
67.
Spradley, J.P. (1980) Participant Observation. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
68.
Strauss, C. (1992) `Models and Motives', in R. D'Andrade and C. Strauss (eds) Human Motives and Cultural Models. New York : Cambridge University Press.
69.
Szapocznik, J., M.A. Scopetta, W. Kurtines and M.D. Aranalde (1978) `Theory and Measurement of Acculturation', Revista Interamericana de Psicologia12(2): 113-30.
70.
Tabakowska, E. (1999) `New Paradigm Thinking in Linguistics', in R. Dilley (ed.) The Problem of Context. New York: Berghahn.
71.
Tedlock, D. and B. Mannheim , eds (1995) The Dialogic Emergence of Culture . Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
72.
Werner, O. and G.M. Schoepfle (1987) Foundations of Ethnography and Interviewing, Volumes 1 and 2. Newbury, CA: Sage.
73.
Whyte, S. (1992) `Discourse Domains Revisited: Expertise and Investment in Conversation', in L. Bouton and Y. Kachru (eds) Pragmatics and Language Learning, Vol. 3, pp. 81-103. Urbana, IL: Division of English as An International Language, University of Illinois.
74.
Whyte, S. (1995) `Specialist Knowledge and Interlanguage Development' , Studies in Second Language Acquisition17: 153-83.
75.
Weinrich, U. (1953) Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Humanities Press.
76.
Wertsch, J.V. (1998) Mind as Action. New York: Oxford University Press.
77.
Wittgenstein, L. (1953) Philosophical Investigations. Oxford: Blackwell.
78.
Wittgenstein, L. (1961[1922]) Tractatus-Logico-Philosophicus (Translated by O.F.M. Pears and B.F. McGuinness). London : Routledge and Kegan Paul.
79.
Woolard, K.A. (1997) `Between Friends: Gender, Peer Group Structure, and Bilingualism in Urban Catalonia', Language in Society26: 533-60.
80.
Young, R. (1999) `Sociolinguistic Approaches to SLA', Annual Review of Applied Linguistics19: 105-32.
81.
Zentella, A.C. (1997) Growing Up Bilingual: Puerto Rican Children in New York. Oxford: Blackwell.
