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Abstract

This article examines the practice of illegal pushbacks at Greece's borders through the lens of “enemy under-criminalization.” Drawing on field reports, testimonies, and academic analyses, the study identifies three defining characteristics of pushbacks: raw violence, permanent exclusion, and the absence of the law. It argues that, unlike crimmigration, which merges criminal and immigration law, pushbacks operate entirely outside legal frameworks, creating an extralegal space, where unrestrained violence replaces legal procedures, treating irregular border crossers as “enemies.” The concept of enemy under-criminalization reflects the exclusion of irregular migrants from both physical territory and legal protection, framing them as adversaries to be removed rather than individuals with rights. By situating pushbacks as a punitive strategy beyond crimmigration, this study underscores their implications for justice, accountability, and the integrity of democratic institutions.

Keywords

enemy under-criminalization crimmigration pushbacks enemy penology Greece border violence

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Pushbacks in Greece as enemy under-criminalization

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