This study focuses on the social formation of game virtual property through analyzing two of its major stakeholders in China: online gamers and game corporations. Based on analysis of the opinions, stakes, and demands of the Chinese gamers, I argue that they are developing an incipient ‘gamer rights’ awareness composed of gamers’ entitlements to virtual property ownership as well as to virtual property rights protection by the state and game publishers. Based on analysis of the stakes and strategic actions of Chinese game publishers, I show that these corporations promulgate a self-serving version of gamer rights protection campaigns and pass the social responsibility of virtual property governance to the state. This study’s findings provide empirical evidence to support theoretical and legal recognition of virtual property, government involvement in virtual-world governance, and the ‘right to play’ critique.
Anon. (2004a) Xuni Caichan Shifou Ying Shou Falü Baohu Zhengyi Redian Lüshi Shuofa. (Should Virtual Property Be Legally Protected? Lawyers Debate on a Controversial Topic). Available at: http://www.eNet.com.cn (consulted May 2007).
2.
Anon. (2004b) ‘Wulikanhua-Miandui Wangluo Youxi Xuni Caichan de Kunhuo’. (Flower-watching in the Mist - Disillusionments of Virtual Property). Dazhong Ruanjian .
3.
Anon. (2004c) ‘Rongyao Fadian’ Zuotanhui (Seminar on the ‘Glorious Code’) .Available at: http://www.pcgames.com.cn/netgames/zhuanti/rongyao/dongxiang/0405/332156.html (consulted May 2007).
4.
Anon. (2005a) ‘Sina Youxi Pindao He Beijing Yule Xinbao Lianhe Diaocha’. (Joint Survey by the Games Channel of Sina.com and Beijing Star Daily). Sina Game Channel.
5.
Anon. (2005b) Rexue Jianghu Dui Daohaozhe Shuo ‘No Way’. (Rexue Jianghu Gamers Say ‘No Way’ to Virtual Property Theft. Available at: http://IT.com.cn (consulted May 2007).
6.
Anon. (2006) Rexue Jianghu: Rejiang Baochu Guomei Wangyou Maizhuang Diyi an. (Rexue Jianghu: China’s First Lawsuit on Purchasing Stolen Virtual Property Erupted in Rexue Jianghu Online . Available at: http://rxjh.17173.com/content/2006-12-19/20061219135908828.shtml (consulted May 2007, retrieved May 2009).
7.
Anon. (2007) Guanwang Shang Zuizao de Fanwaigua Shengming Jingtian Dongdi Baijia Gonghui Fanwaigua (The First Anti-bot Announcement from the Official Forum: A Hundred Clans of Jingtian Dongdi Joined the Anti-bot Campaign), Renminwang Youxi Pinda.Available at: http://game.people.com.cn/GB/68237/79542/79575/5472198.html (consulted May 2007).
8.
Bartle R. ( 2004) Pitfalls of Virtual Property. White Paper of The Themis Group. April.
9.
Boonk M. and Lodder AR ( 2007) Virtual worlds: Yet another challenge to intellectual property law. Global IP Summit Magazine. Available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1079970 (consulted April 2008).
10.
Castronova E. ( 2002) On Virtual Economies. CESifo Working Paper Series No. 752.
11.
Castronova E. ( 2003) Theory of the Avatar. CESifo Working Paper Series No. 863.
12.
Castronova E. ( 2004) The right to play. New York Law School Law Review49(1): 185-210.
13.
Castronova E. ( 2006) A cost-benefit analysis of real-money trade in the products of synthetic economies. Info8(6): 51-68.
14.
Chew M. ( 2006) Policy implications of massively multiplayer online games for Hong Kong. Occasional Papers no. 176, October. Hong Kong Institute of Asia Pacific Studies .
15.
Chew M. ( 2008) Virtual-world Unrest and the Gamer Rights Protection Movement in China. Paper presented at the 6th Annual Chinese Internet Research Conference, 13-14 June, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
16.
Couldry N., Livingstone S. and Markham T. ( 2007) Media Consumption and Public Engagement: Beyond the Presumption of Attention. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan
17.
Crews S. ( 2009) Real Money, Fake Property: Live Gamer’s Andy Schneider on Bringing Item Sales in from the Cold. Available at: http://www.mmogamer.com/04/24/2009/real-money-fake-property/2 (dated 24 April, consulted June 2009).
18.
Dibbell J. ( 2007) Recalculating the Global Virtual GDP, Yet Again. Available at: http://terranova.blogs.com/terra_nova/2007/06/recalculating-t.html (consulted July 2007).
19.
Ding M. ( 2007) Bufa Chanyelian Yi Xingcheng Xuni Shijie ‘Eibang’ Hengxing (An Illegal Industry Has Emerged: ‘Gangsters’ Are Dominating Virtual-worlds). Shichangbao, 28 March.
20.
Ding X. ( 2007) Xuni Caichan Yinlai Xianshi Dadao Meitian Daohao 30 Wan Ge. (Virtual Property Attracts Real-world Criminal Who Steals at the Rate of 300,000 Accounts Everyday). Xinwen Wanbao, 10 August.
21.
Eriksson A. and Grill K. ( 2005) Who Owns My Avatar? - Rights in Virtual Property. DiGRA Changing Views - Worlds in Play. Available at: http://www.infra.kth.se/~kg/Who%20owns%20my%20avatar.pdf (consulted May 2007).
22.
Fairfield J. ( 2005) Virtual property. Boston University Law Review85: 1047.
23.
Fairfield J. ( 2008) Anti-social contracts: The contractual governance of virtual worlds. McGill Law Journal53: 427.
24.
Fan Y. ( 2005) Bacheng Wangyou Xuni Caichan Diule Zhuibuhui. (80% of Lost Virtual Property Is Never Found). Beijing Yule Xinbao , 23 May.
25.
Feng C. ( 2008) Playing with shadows: Exposing the black market for online game password theft. Virus Bulletin Conference (October): 207-214.
26.
Grimes S. ( 2006) Online multiplayer games: A virtual space for intellectual property debates?’ New Media and Society8(6): 969-990.
27.
Grimmelmann J. ( 2004) James Grimmelmann Interviews Steve Salyer (President, Internet Gaming Entertainment). State of Play II Conference 28-30 October, New York University. Available at: http://www.nyls.edu/pages/2559.asp (consulted April 2005).
28.
Haller B. ( 2007) Game Over: Commodification of MMORPGs. Unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Bremen.
29.
Hermes J. ( 2006) Hidden debates: Rethinking the relationship between popular culture and the public sphere. Javnost13(4): 27-44.
30.
Hong M. ( 2007) Xuni Shiwu Meinian Beidao Qishi Yi. (7 Billion Taiwanese Dollars’ Worth of Virtual Treasures Stolen Annually). Shibao Zhoukan vol. 1531 (26 June).
31.
Huhh J. ( 2006) Effects of Real-money Trading on MMOG Demand: A Network Externality Based Explanation. Available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=943368 (consulted May 2007).
32.
Huhh J. and Park S. ( 2005) Game Design, Trading Markets, and Playing Practices - What Did Lineage Do for Enchanting Korean Players? Available at: http://anarinsk.com.ne.kr/data/lineage.pdf (consulted May 2007).
33.
Humphreys S. ( 2004) Commodifying culture: It’s not just about the virtual sword. In: Sicart M and Smith JH (eds) Proceedings of the Other Players Conference. Copenhagen: IT University of Copenhagen, 6-8 December 2004.
34.
Jankowich A. ( 2005) Property and democracy in virtual worlds. Boston University Journal of Science and Technology Law11: 173.
35.
Jankowich A. ( 2006) EU law: The complex web of corporate rule-making in virtual worlds. Tulane Journal of Technology and Intellectual Property8.
36.
Lastowka G. ( 2007) Rules of Play. Available at: http://terranova.blogs.com/RulesofPlay.pdf (consulted May 2007 ).
37.
Lastowka G. and Hunter D. ( 2004a) The laws of the virtual worlds. California Law Review92(1): 1-73.
38.
Lastowka G. and Hunter D. ( 2004b) Virtual crimes. New York Law School Law Review49(1): 293.
39.
Lehdonvirta V. ( 2005) Economic Integration Strategies for Virtual World Operators . Master’s thesis, Helsinki University of Technology , 31 May.
40.
Lehdonvirta V. ( 2007) Virtual Property in the Real Economy: Value and Implementation . Paper presented at EPECC 2007, Chengdu, China, 18-19 May.
41.
Lehtiniemi T. and Lehdonvirta V. ( 2007) How Big Is the RMT Market Anyway? Available at: http://virtual-economy.org/blog/how_big_is_the_rmt_market_anyw (consulted January 2008).
42.
Li Bin ( 2006) ‘Xuni Caichan’ Diyian de Biaoben Yiyi. (The Meaning of ‘the First Virtual Property Criminal Case’). Zhongguo Shehui Daokan, May.
43.
Linghun (2007) Hanguo Weishenme Jinzhi Xianxia Jiaoyi? (Why Did Korea Ban RMT?). Available at: http://lingzhihun3.blog.sohu.com/25893465.html (consulted May 2007).
44.
Long B. ( 2007) 83% Wangmin Cheng Sizhe Youxiang Yingbei Jicheng Xuni Caichan Guishu Daiding (83% of the Internet Population Think Mailbox Accounts Should Be Inheritable; Virtual Property Ownership Still Awaits Adjudication) . Sohu IT Xiaoxi. Available at: http://it.sohu.com/20070403/n249155326.shtml (consulted May 2008).
45.
Lu W. ( 2007) Hu Chenli ‘Fan Daohao Lüse Lianmeng’ Baohu Wangmin Xuni Caichan. (Anti-account Theft Green Alliance Established in Shanghai to Protect Virtual Property). Xinhuawang, 6 April. Available at: http://news.xinhuanet.com/internet/2007-04/08/content_5948242.htm (consulted May 2008).
46.
Luo T. ( 2009) Wangyou Xuni Jiaoyi Jin 200 Yi Yuan, Zhengshui Zhi Xing Zaiqi. (Virtual Property Transactions Amount to Almost 20 Billion Yuan, the Voice of Taxation Arises Again). Beijing Business Today , 24 March.
47.
Ma L. ( 2006) Wangyou Shijie Falü Buneng Xuni. (Laws Should Not Be ‘Virtual’ in Virtual-worlds). Fazhi Wanbao , 5 July.
48.
MacInnes I. ( 2006) Property rights, legal issues, and business models in virtual world communities. Electronic Commerce Research Journal6: 39-56.
49.
MacInnes I., Park YJ and Whang LS ( 2004) Virtual World Governance: Digital Item Trade and Its Consequences in Korea’.Unpublished paper presented at the Telecommunications Policy Research Conference, Arlington, VA, USA.
50.
Manninen T. and Kujanpää T. ( 2007) The value of virtual assets - the role of game characters in MMOGs. International Journal of Business Science and Applied Management2(1): 21-33.
51.
Nash J. and Schneyer E. ( 2004) Virtual Economies: An In-depth Look at the Virtual World of Final Fantasy XI Online. Unpublished paper.
52.
Ondrejka C. ( 2004) Escaping the gilded cage: User created content and building the metaverse. New York Law School Law Review49(1): 81.
53.
Peng W. ( 2006) Wangluo Youxi Changshi ‘Xianxing Peifu’; Haihong Touci Wei Wangjia Weiquan. (Online Game Tries ‘Pre-approved Compensation’: Haihong Investment Protects the Rights of Gamers). The Beijing News, 14 April.
54.
Reynolds R. ( 2003) Hands off My Avatar! Issues With Claims of Virtual Property and Identity. Available at: http://www.ren-reynolds.com/downloads/HandsOffMYavatar (consulted May 2007).
55.
Rheingold H. ( 1993) The Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc.
56.
Schwarz AD and Bullis R. ( 2005) Rivalrous consumption and the boundaries of copyright law: Intellectual property lessons from online games. Intellectual Property Law Bulletin10(13): 13-30.
57.
Taylor TL ( 2002) Whose game is this anyway? Negotiating corporate ownership in a virtual world. In Mayra F (ed.) Computer Games and Digital Cultures Conference Proceedings. Tampere: Tampere University Press, 227-242.
58.
Wang W. and Zhang Y. ( 2006) Wan Wangluo Youxi Jin Bacheng Ren Zao ‘Qinquan’. (80% Gamers Experience Gamer Rights Abuse). Fazhi Wanbao , 5 July.
59.
Wangluo Youxi Zhuanye Weiyuanhui (2007) ‘Fandaohao Lüse Lianmeng’ Xianqi Dierbo Langchao. (‘Anti-account Theft Green Alliance’ into Second Round of Activities). Available at: http://www.shgame.org/zh_cn/alliance.aspx?p=494536374B66307964534D3D&l=3656507759386D303972633D (dated 13 July, consulted July 2008).
60.
Wei Z. ( 2007) Wujia Wangyou Yunyingshang Huyu Jiakuai Xuni Caichan Lifa. (Five Game Operators Beseech Speeding up of the Passing of Virtual Property Legislation). Xinwen Chenbao, 9 January.
61.
Wen Z. ( 2005) Wangluo Youxi Weiquan Xian Kunjing Xuni Caichan Lifa Reng Xu Shiri. (Game Rights Protection in Quagmire, Establishment of Virtual Property Laws Will Take Long). Zhongguo Jingyingbao, 19 March.
62.
Whang LS, Lee H. and Park YJ ( 2004) The Emergence of Digital Image Value Property Rights Created by Interactivity between Users and Items in Online Games. Unpublished paper presented at the Americas Conference of Information Systems (AMCIS 2004), New York.
63.
Zhang S. ( 2005) Liucheng Wangmin Xuni Caichan Ceng Ceidao Jishao Wanjia Zhudong Weiquan. (60% of Internet Population Have Virtual Property Theft Experiences, Few of Them Proactively Protect Their Own Rights). Beijing Yule Xinbao, 20 June.
64.
Zhang X. ( 2003) Wangluo Youxi Anquan Diaocha Baogao Gongbao Liangchengwangjia Cheng ‘Qiezei’. (A Survey on Online Game Security Announces: 20% of Gamers Are Thieves). Beijing Star Daily, 5 December.
65.
Zhongguo Qingshaonian Wangluo Xiehui (2003 ) Huodong Mudi (Goals of This Activity). Available at: http://friends.cyol.com/2003/game/gameindex.htm (consulted May 2007).
