The scaphoid is by far the most commonly fractured carpal bone. Occult fractures, imperceptible on initial radiographs and a reputation for non-union make diagnosis and management challenging. The past few years have seen significant advances in the assessment and surgical treatment of scaphoid fractures. This article reviews the published literature relating to acute scaphoid fractures and examines the advances that have been made in management.
Amadio PC, Moran SL2005. Fractures of the carpal bones. In Green DP, Hotchkiss RN , Pederson WC, Wolfe SW (eds). Green’s operative hand surgery, 5th ed. Elsevier, Churchill Livingstone: Philadelphia, 711-68.
2.
Barton NJ1997. Experience with scaphoid grafting. J Hand Surg Br22: 153-60.
3.
Barton NJ2004. The late consequences of scaphoid fractures. J Bone Joint Surg Br86: 626-30.
4.
Barton NJ1992. Twenty questions about scaphoid fractures. J Hand Surg Br17: 289-310.
5.
Berger RA2001. The anatomy of the scaphoid. Hand Clin17: 525-32.
6.
Bhatt M., McCarthyM,Davis TRC, Oni JA, Dawson S.2004. MRI and plain radiography in the assessment of displaced fractures of the waist of the carpal scaphoid. J Bone Joint Surg Br86: 705-13.
7.
Bond CD, Shin AY, McBride MT, Dao KD2001. Percutaneous screw fixation or cast immobilization for nondisplaced scaphoid fractures. J Bone Joint Surg83: 483-88.
8.
Brydie A.2003. Early MRI in the management of clinical scaphoid fracture . Br J Radiol76: 296-300.
9.
Burge P.2001. Closed cast treatment of scaphoid fractures. Hand Clin17: 541-52.
10.
Cheung GC, Lever CJ, Morris AD2006. X-ray diagnosis of acute scaphoid fractures. J Hand Surg Br31: 104-09.
11.
Clay NR, Dias JJ, Costigan PS, et al. 1991. Need the thumb be immobilized in scaphoid fractures: A randomized prospective trial. J Bone Joint Surg Br73: 828-32.
12.
Compson JP1998. The anatomy of acute scaphoid fractures: a three-dimensional analysis of patterns. J Bone Joint Surg Br80: 218-24.
13.
Cooney WP, Dobyns JH, Linscheid RL1980. Fractures of the scaphoid: a rational approach to management . Clin Orthop149: 90-97.
14.
Dawson JS, Martel AL, Davis TRC2001. Scaphoid blood flow and acute fracture healing: a dynamic MRI study with enhancement with gadolinium. J Bone Joint Surg Br83: 809-14.
15.
Desai V., Davis TRC, Barton NJ1999. The prognostic value and reproducibility of the radiological features of the fractures of the scaphoid. J Hand Surg Br24: 586-90.
16.
Dias JJ, Brenkel IJ, Finlay DBL1989. Patterns of union in fractures of the waist of the scaphoid . J Bone Joint Surg Br71: 307-10.
17.
Dias JJ, Taylor M., Thompson J., et al. 1988. Radiographic signs of union of scaphoid fractures: an analysis of interobserver agreement and reproducibility. J Bone Joint Surg Br70: 299-301.
18.
Dias JJ, Thompson J., Barton NJ, Gregg PJ1990. Suspected scaphoid fractures the value of radiographs . J Bone Joint Surg Br72: 98-101.
19.
Dias JJ, Wildin CJ, Bhowal B., Thompson JR2005. Should acute scaphoid fractures be fixed? J Bone Joint Surg Am87: 2160-68.
20.
Dias JJ2001. Definition of union after acute fracture and surgery for fracture non-union of the scaphoid. J Hand Surg26: 321-25.
21.
Frykman G.1967. Fracture of the distal radius including sequelae - shoulder-hand finger syndrome, disturbance in the distal radio-ulnar joint and impairment of nerve function: A clinical and experimental study. Acta Orthop Scand Suppl108: 1-153.
22.
Gaebler C., Kukla C., Breitenseher M. et al. 1996. Magnetic resonance imaging of occult scaphoid fractures. J Trauma41: 73-76.
23.
Gelberman RH, Menon J.1980. The vascularity of the scaphoid bone. J Hand Surg Am5: 508-13.
24.
Gellman H., Caputo RJ, Carter V., Aboulafia A., McKay M.1989. Comparison of short and long thumb-spica casts for non-displaced fractures of the carpal scaphoid. J Bone Joint Surg Am71: 354-57.
25.
Grover R.1996. Clinical assessment of scaphoid injuries and the detection of fractures. J Hand Surg Br21: 341-43.
26.
Groves AM, Cheow HK, Balan KK, Bearcroft PWP, Dixon AK2005a. 16 detector multislice CT versus skeletal scintigraphy in the diagnosis of wrist fractures: value of quantification of 99Tcm-MDP uptake. Br J Radiol78: 791-95.
Hambidge JE, Desai VV, Schranz PJ, et al. 1999. Acute fractures of the scaphoid: Treatment by cast immobilization with the wrist in flexion or extension? J Bone Joint Surg Br81: 91-92.
29.
Herbert TJ, Fisher WE1984. Management of the fractured scaphoid using a new bone screw. J Bone Joint Surg Br66: 114-23.
30.
Herbert TJ2001. Open volar repair of acute scaphoid fractures. Hand Clin17: 589-99.
31.
Hove LM1999. Epidemiology of scaphoid fractures in Bergen, Norway . Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg Hand Surg33: 423-26.
32.
Hunter JC, Escobedo EM, Wilson AJ, Hanel DP, Zink-Brody GC, Mann FA1997. MR imaging of clinically suspected scaphoid fractures . Am J Roentgenol168: 1287-93.
33.
Inoue G., Shionoya K.1997. Herbert screw fixation by limited access for acute fractures of the scaphoid. J Bone Joint Surg Br79: 418-21.
34.
Jupiter JB, Shin AY, Trumble TE, Fernandez DL2001. Traumatic and reconstructive problems of the scaphoid . Instr Course Lect50: 105-22.
35.
Kaneshiro SA, Failla JM, Tashman S.1999. Scaphoid fracture displacement with forearm rotation in a short arm thumb spica cast. J Hand Surg Am24: 984-91.
36.
Kozin SH2001. Incidence, mechanism, and natural history of scaphoid fractures. Hand Clin17: 515-24.
37.
Krimmer H.2002. Management of acute fractures and nonunions of the proximal pole of the scaphoid. J Hand Surg Br27: 245-48.
38.
Leslie IJ, Dickson RA1981. The fractured carpal scaphoid: natural history and factors influencing outcome. J Bone Joint Surg Br63: 225.
39.
Lindström G., Nystrom A.1990. Incidence of post-traumatic arthrosis after primary healing of scaphoid fractures: a clinical and radiological study. J Hand Surg Br15: 11-13.
40.
Lindström G., Nystrom A.1992. Natural history of scaphoid non-union, with special reference to ‘‘asymptomatic’’ cases. J Hand Surg Br17: 697-700.
41.
London PS1961. The broken scaphoid bone. The case against pessimism . J Bone Joint Surg Br43: 237-44.
42.
Mack GR, Bosse MJ, Gelberman RH, Yu E.1984. The natural history of scaphoid non-union. J Bone Joint Surg Am66: 504-09.
43.
Malik AK, Shetty AA, Targett C., Compson JP2004. Scaphoid views: a need for standardisation. Ann Roy Coll Surg Eng86: 165-70.
44.
Mayfield JK1980. Mechanism of carpal injuries. Clin Orthop149: 45-54.
45.
Nakamura R., Imaeda T., Horii E., Miura T., Hayakawa N.1991. Analysis of scaphoid fracture displacement by three-dimensional computed tomography. J Hand Surg Am16: 485-92.
46.
Obletz BE, Halbstein BM1938. Non-union of fractures of the carpal navicular . J Bone Joint Surg20: 424-28.
47.
Parvizi J., Wayman J., Kelly P., Moran CG1998. Combining the clinical signs improves diagnosis of scaphoid fractures: A prospective study with follow-up. J Hand Surg Br23: 324-27.
48.
Prosser AJ, Brenkel IJ, Irvine GB1988. Articular fractures of the distal scaphoid. J Hand Surg Br13: 87-91.
49.
Retting ME, Raskin KB1999. Retrograde compression screw fixation of acute proximal pole scaphoid fractures. J Hand Surg Am24: 1206-10.
50.
Ring D., Jupiter JB, Herndon JH2000. Acute fractures of the scaphoid. J Am Acad Orthop Surg8: 225-31.
51.
Ruby LK, Stinson J., Belsky MR1985. The natural history of scaphoid non-union: a review of fifty-five cases. J Bone Joint Surg Am67: 428-32.
52.
Russe O.1960. Fracture of the carpal navicular: Diagnosis, non-operative treatment and operative treatment. J Bone Joint Surg Am42: 759-68.
53.
Saeden B., Tornkvist H., Ponzer S., Hoglund M.2001. Fracture of the carpal scaphoid: a prospective, randomized 12 year follow-up comparing operative and conservative treatment . J Bone Joint Surg Br83: 230-34.
54.
Sehat KR, Bannister GC2000. The prevalence of established scaphoid fracture nonunion found on incidental radiography. Injury31: 275-76.
55.
Singh HP, Forward D., Davis TRC, Dawson JS, Oni JA, Downing ND2005. Partial union of acute scaphoid fractures. J Hand Surg Br30: 440-45.
56.
Smith DK, Linscheid RL, Amadio PC et al. 1989. Scaphoid anatomy: evaluation with complex motion tomography. Radiology173: 177-80.
57.
Stewart MJ1954. Fractures of the carpal navicular (scaphoid): a report of 436 cases. J Bone Joint Surg Am36: 998-1006.
58.
Szabo RM, Manske D.1988. Displaced fractures of the scaphoid. Clin Orthop Relat Res230: 30-38.
59.
Taleisnik J., Kelly PJ1966. The extraosseous and intraosseous blood supply of the scaphoid bone. J Bone Joint Surg Am48: 1125-37.
60.
Temple CLF, Ross DC, Bennett JD, Garvin GJ, King GJW, Faber KJ2005. Comparison of saggittal computed tomography and plain film radiography in a scaphoid fracture model. J Hand Surg Am30: 534-42.
61.
Thorpe AP, Murray AD, Smith FW, Ferguson J.1996. Clinically suspected scaphoid fracture: A comparison of magnetic resonance imaging and bone scintigraphy. Br J Radiol69: 109-13.
62.
Tiel-van Buul MM, van Beek EJR, Borm JJJ, et al. 1993a. The value of radiographs and bone scintigraphy in suspected scaphoid fracture, a statistical analysis. J Hand Surg Br18: 403-06.
63.
Tiel-van Buul MM, van Beek EJR, Broekhuizen AH, et al. 1993b. Radiography and scintigraphy of suspected scaphoid fracture, a long-term study in 160 patients. J Bone Joint Surg Br75: 61-65.
64.
Toby EB, Butler TE, McCormack TJ, Jayaraman G.1997. A comparison of fixation screws for the scaphoid during application of cyclical bending loads. J Bone Joint Surg Am79: 1190-97.
65.
Vender MI, Watson HK, Wiener BD, Black DM1987. Degenerative change in symptomatic scaphoid nonunion . J Hand Surg Am12: 514-19.
66.
Verdan C.1960. Fracture of the scaphoid. Surg Clin North Am40: 461-64.
67.
Waizenegger M., Wastie ML, Barton NJ, Davis TR1994. Scintigraphy in the evaluation of the ‘‘clinical’’ scaphoid fracture. J Hand Surg Br19: 750-53.
68.
Watson HK, Weinzweig J., Zeppieri J.1997. The natural progression of scaphoid instability . Hand Clin13: 39-49.
69.
Weber ER, Chao EYS1978. An experimental approach to the mechanism of scaphoid waist fractures. J Hand Surg Am3: 142-48.
70.
Whipple TL1995. Stabilization of the fractured scaphoid under arthroscopic control. Orthop Clin North Am26: 749-54.
71.
Ziter FM1973. A modified view of the carpal navicular. Radiology108: 706-07.
