Indoor–outdoor pollution dynamics of fine particulate matter-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals in office buildings: Source identification and lifetime cancer risk assessment
Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online April, 2026
Indoor–outdoor pollution dynamics of fine particulate matter-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals in office buildings: Source identification and lifetime cancer risk assessment
In recent years, increasing time spent indoors has led to widespread concern regarding health problems associated with indoor air quality issues. This study conducted a 6-month monitoring and sampling campaign of indoor and outdoor air pollutant in an office building in northeastern China. The trends of indoor and outdoor polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) concentrations were generally consistent, but indoor concentrations of PAHs showed significantly greater fluctuations, with Pyrene, Phenanthrene and Fluoranthene accounting for a higher proportion. Carcinogenic risk assessment revealed that the total incremental lifetime cancer risk exceeded that of all individual's exposures in the following order: dermal contact > ingestion > inhalation. Furthermore, analysis of heavy metals in indoor (particulate matter (PM)) PM2.5 found high enrichment factors of these elements. The primary sources of these heavy metals included vehicle wear, natural dust, vehicle exhaust, industrial emissions and coal combustion. Amongst these, as posed a significantly higher carcinogenic risk than other elements, with exposure risks ranked as follows: the total average daily dose through ingestion > dermal average daily dose > inhalation average daily dose. This study has systematically elucidated the distribution characteristics and potential health risks, providing theoretical support and data references for improving indoor air quality and formulating scientifically sound environmental policies.
LiCLiZBaiLGuoYQinJWangH. Estimating air pollutant emissions from burning straw for heating in rural Northeast China: based on the heat load for building heating. J Build Eng2023; 72: 106642.
2.
ToffulLCanepariSSargoliniTPerrinoC. Indoor air quality in a domestic environment: combined contribution of indoor and outdoor PM sources. Build Environ2021; 202: 108050.
3.
LiangNLiZSunJFuNZhongGLinXMaoKZhangPChangZYangDDuWShenGPanB. A systematic review on heavy metals in indoor air: occurrence, spatial variation, and health risk. Build Environ2025; 269: 112357.
4.
TorrianiGTorresinSLara IbeasIAlbaticiRBabichF. Perceived air quality (PAQ) assessment methods in office buildings: a systematic review towards an indoor smellscape approach. Build Environ2024; 258: 111645.
5.
SeoSJungKParkMKwonHChoiS. Indoor air pollution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons emitted by computers. Build Environ2022; 218: 109107.
6.
FurstLCipoliYYuberoEGalindoNViegasCDiasMNunesTIgrejasGFelicianoMAlvesC. Indoor air quality in a home improvement store: gaseous pollutants, bioburden and particle-bound chemical constituents. Build Environ2025; 277: 112908.
7.
TurnerMCAndersenZJBaccarelliADiverWRGapsturSMPopeCAPradaDSametJThurstonGCohenA. Outdoor air pollution and cancer: an overview of the current evidence and public health recommendations. CA Cancer J Clin2020; 70: 460–479.
8.
ChenCZhaoB. Review of relationship between indoor and outdoor particles: I/O ratio, infiltration factor and penetration factor. Atmos Environ2011; 45: 275–288.
9.
MansorAAAbdullahSAhmadANAhmedANZulkifliMFRJusohSMIsmailM. Indoor air quality and sick building syndrome symptoms in administrative office at public university. Dialogues Health2024; 4: 100178.
10.
StephensBSiegelJA. Comparison of test methods for determining the particle removal efficiency of filters in residential and light commercial central HVAC systems. Aerosol Sci Technol2012; 46: 504–513.
11.
BaiLGengXLiuX. Review of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pollution characteristics and carcinogenic risk assessment in global cooking environments. Environ Pollut2024; 361: 124816.
12.
LiuJChenYPuHChenXYangWOuyangZPangQFanR. A new mechanism involved in cardiovascular senescence induced by environmentally relevant dose of 16 priority-controlled PAHs. Environ Int2025; 197: 109326.
13.
DingXLiuYWanSYangYLiangRYangSZhangJCaoXZhouMChenW. Cross-sectional and longitudinal associations of PAHs exposure with serum uric acid and hyperuricemia among Chinese urban residents: the potential role of oxidative damage. Environ Pollut2024; 360: 124664.
14.
HeJPangQHuangCXieJHuJWangLWangCMengLFanR. Environmental dose of 16 priority-controlled PAHs mixture induce damages of vascular endothelial cells involved in oxidative stress and inflammation. Toxicol in Vitro2022; 79: 105296.
15.
LiCBaiLWangHLiZ. Promoting the design of future urban metro systems to improve air pollution: based on metal element pollution in Chinese metro system. Sustain Cities Soc2023; 97: 104753.
16.
UdomGTuryahabweBAturamuAAziakponoOMAgbanaRDJosephOGUdomNGMugideNOdeyOPOlotHOrisakweOE. Heavy metal and metalloid pollution: a systematic review of health implications for pregnant women, children, and geriatrics in the East African region. Environ Adv2025; 19: 100620.
17.
KouXIglesias-VázquezLNadalMBasoraJArijaV. Urinary concentrations of heavy metals in pregnant women living near a petrochemical area according to the industrial activity. Environ Res2023; 253: 116677.
18.
DeepthiYPassiAChithraVSSchlinkUNagendraSMS. Personal exposure of women to PM2.5-bound PAH derivatives from cooking emissions in varied rural kitchen setups. Build Environ2025; 267: 112189.
19.
SouzaMCruzJRochaBSouzaPDevózSantanaACampígliaABarbosaF. The influence of the co-exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and toxic metals on DNA damage in Brazilian lactating women and their infants: a cross-sectional study using machine learning approaches. Chemosphere2023; 334: 138975.
20.
AbilashDSridharanTB. Impact of air pollution and heavy metal exposure on sperm quality: a clinical prospective research study. Toxicol Rep2024; 131: 101708.
21.
MitovaMCampelosPGoujon-GinglingerCMaederSMottierNRougetETharinMTrickerA. Comparison of the impact of the Tobacco Heating System 2.2 and a cigarette on indoor air quality. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol2016; 80: 91–101.
22.
SeoSHJungKSParkMKKwonHOChoiSD. Indoor air pollution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons emitted by computers. Build Environ2022; 218: 109107.
23.
KagiNFujiiSHoribaYNamikiNOhtaniYEmiHHTamuraYSKim. Indoor air quality for chemical and ultrafine particle contaminants from printers. Build Environ2007; 42: 1949–1954.
24.
LiHChenYLiYYangSZouYWangL. Requirement of minimum air change rate for different pollutant emission rate levels of decoration material in a renovated office. J Build Eng2025; 101: 111928.
25.
WangMLvYLvXWangQLiYLuPYuHWeiPCaoZAnT. Distribution, sources and health risks of heavy metals in indoor dust across China. Chemosphere2023; 313: 137595.
26.
ZengXQianZVaughnMNelsonEDharmageSBowatteGPerretJChenDMaHLinSFoyBHuLYangBXuSZhangCTianYNianMWangJXiaoXBaoWZhangYDongG. Positive association between short-term ambient air pollution exposure and children blood pressure in China – Result from the Seven Northeast Cities (SNEC) study. Environ Pollut2017; 224: 698–705.
27.
WuQZhuYHuangKLiuJ. Research on influencing factors and improvement methods for air pollution in rural houses of severe cold region of China. J Build Eng2025; 99: 111491.
28.
ZhangZYuanQWangMHuTHuangYXiuGLaiSGaoYLeeSC. Exposure and health risk assessment of PM2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during winter at residential homes: a case study in four Chinese cities. Sci Total Environ2023; 895: 165111.
29.
HeLDuanmuLChenXYouBLiuGWenXGuoLBaoQFuJChenW. Regulation of open straw burning and residential coal burning around urbanized areas could achieve urban air quality standards in the cold region of northeastern China. Sustainable Horiz2024; 9: 100077.
30.
LiuTHeGLauAKH. Statistical evidence on the impact of agricultural straw burning on urban air quality in China. Sci Total Environ2020; 711: 134633.
31.
FuJSongSGuoLChenWWangPDuanmuLShangYShiBHeL. Interprovincial joint prevention and control of open straw burning in Northeast China: implications for atmospheric environment management. Remote Sens2022; 14: 2528.
32.
LiuLGaoJLuoZLiuJWangLYuanY. Field investigation of indoor air quality and its association with heating lifestyles among older people in severe cold rural China. J Build Eng2024; 95: 110086.
33.
ZhangJGeXQiuXLiuLMulderJDuanL. Estimation of carbon sequestration potential and air quality impacts of biochar production from straw in China. Environ Pollut2024; 363: 125304.
34.
HeYWangHZhengYFengYChenXJinLLeiY. Revealing air quality impacts of the clean heating campaign in northern China. Energy Econ2025; 141: 108078.
35.
LiCBaiLQinJGuoYWangHXuX. Study on metal elements in indoor particulate matter: a case study of rural residential environment in Northeast China. Environ Geochem Health2023; 45: 4867–4881.
36.
SutherlandRA. Bed sediment-associated trace metals in an urban stream, Oahu, Hawaii. Environ Geol2000; 39: 611–627.
37.
LiCBaiLWangHLiZ. Promoting the design of future urban metro systems to improve air pollution: based on metal element pollution in Chinese metro system. Sustain Cities Soc2023; 97: 104753.
38.
HanQWangMXuXLiMLiuYZhangCLiSWangM. Health risk assessment of heavy metals in road dust from the fourth-tier industrial city in central China based on Monte Carlo simulation and bioaccessibility. Ecotoxicol Environ Safb2023; 252: 114627.
39.
LiCLiZWangH. Characterization and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) pollution in particulate matter in rural residential environments in China-A review. Sustain Cities Soc2023; 96: 104690.
40.
FlorenciaTMIvánTBAlejandraCH. Health risk assessment of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in household indoor environments. Environ Adv2022; 7: 100159.
41.
DongWZhangYQuanX. Health risk assessment of heavy metals and pesticides: a case study in the main drinking water source in Dalian, China. Chemosphere2020; 242: 125113.
42.
ToffulLCanepariSSargoliniTPerrinoC. Indoor air quality in a domestic environment: combined contribution of indoor and outdoor PM sources. Build Environ2021; 202: 108050.
43.
ManginTBarrettZPalmerZTangDNielsonSSleethDKellyK. Understanding the effect of outdoor pollution episodes and HVAC type on indoor air quality. Build Environ2025; 278: 112978.
44.
TelejkoM. Attempt to improve indoor air quality in computer laboratories. Procedia Eng2017; 172: 1154–1160.
45.
AbouelhamdMKugaKYooSItoK. Effect of crowd density, wind direction, and air temperature on the formation of individual human breathing zones in a semi-outdoor environment. Sustain Cities Soc2024; 103: 105274.
46.
PuchkovaAMerinoJParlikadA. Maintenance optimisation of heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems to improve indoor air quality. IFAC-PapersOnLine2024; 58: 67–72.
47.
CheWTsoCSunLIpDLeeHChaoCLauA. Energy consumption, indoor thermal comfort and air quality in a commercial office with retrofitted heat, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system. Energy Build2019; 201: 202–215.
48.
ZhengKZhangXAramMQiDZhaoYWangLLDeromeDCarmelietJ. A state-of-the-art review on scaling and similarity analysis of thermal flow in the built environment using helium gas. In IABP 2024: Lect Notes Civ Eng2025; 553: 541–549.
49.
XiCRenCZhangRWangJFengZHaghighatFCaoS-J. Nature-based solution for urban traffic heat mitigation facing carbon neutrality: sustainable design of roadside green belts. Appl Energy2023; 343: 121197.
50.
WuDWeiNZhangCYueXLiHZhangWJiaXZhuJZhangWFanY. Long term atmosphere surveillance (2017–2022) of PM2.5–bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and health risk assessment in a typical city in northern China. BMC Public Health2025; 25: 1888.
51.
LiuXLiCTuHWuYYingCHuangQWuSXieQYuanZLuY. Analysis of the effect of meteorological factors on PM2.5-associated PAHs during autumn-winter in urban Nanchang. Aerosol Air Qual Res2016; 16: 3222–3229.
52.
LiCWangHChiYThamKWBaiLLiZ. Seasonal variation and health risks of rural indoor PAHs in severely cold regions: effects of heating type and energy structure. Build Environ2025; 283: 113364.
53.
MartuzeviciusDKliucininkasLPrasauskasTKruglyEKaunelieneVStrandbergB. Resuspension of particulate matter and PAHs from street dust. Atmos Environ2011; 45: 310–317.
54.
JavedWIakovidesMStephanouEGWolfsonJMKoutrakisPGuoB. Concentrations of aliphatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient PM 2.5 and PM 10 particulates in Doha, Qatar. J Air Waste Manage Assoc2019; 69: 162–177.
55.
CuiYBaiLLiCHeZLiuX. Assessment of heavy metal contamination levels and health risks in environmental media in the northeast region. Sustain Cities Soc2022; 80: 103796.
56.
CuiYFanCZhangWZhouX. Decoupling prediction of cooling load and optimizing control for dedicated outdoor air systems by using a hybrid artificial neural network method. Case Stud Therm Eng2025; 69: 106046.
57.
HanYLiXZhuTLvDChenYHouLZhangYRenM. Characteristics and relationships between indoor and outdoor PM2.5 in Beijing: a residential apartment case study. Aerosol Air Qual Res2016; 16: 2386–2395.
58.
VuTVStewartGBKitwiroonNLimSBarrattBKellyFJThompsonRSmithRBToledanoMBBeeversSD. Assessing the contributions of outdoor and indoor sources to air quality in London homes of the SCAMP cohort. Build Environ2022; 222: 109359.
59.
LiuJKangHTaoWLiHHeDMaLTangHWuSYangKLiX. A spatial distribution – Principal component analysis (SD-PCA) model to assess pollution of heavy metals in soil. Sci Total Environ2023; 859: 160112.
