This study aims to investigate whether sources of metal elements in fine particulate matter and their distribution in high-rise buildings vary with floor levels. Inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) was used to determine the contents of 11 common heavy metals in PM2.5 samples collected from different floors of a high-rise residential building in Northeast China during the heating season. The sources of metal elements in PM2.5 samples on different floors were analysed by the enrichment factor method and the principal component analysis method. The concentration of metal elements is higher in lower floors (<7th floor) and lower in higher floors (>7th floor). The enrichment factor method shows that the enrichment factors of As, Cd, Cu and Pb may be seriously affected by human sources, while the enrichment factors of the other seven metals are less than 10, indicating that their sources may be natural sources. The principal component analysis shows that the main sources of indoor metal elements in high-rise residential buildings are divided into four main components, including coal combustion (31.44%), automobile emissions and transportation (21.60%), soil dust, particulate matter discharged from agricultural production and atmospheric dust (13.43%), metallurgical, chemical and ore mining (12.61%).
WangYLiLChenCHuangCHuangHFengJChengP.Source apportionment of fine particulate matter during autumn haze episodes in Shanghai, China. J Geophys Res Atmos2014;
119: 1903–1914.
2.
CaoSJKongXRLiLZhangWYeZPDengY.An investigation of the PM2.5 and NO2 concentrations and their human health impacts in the metro subway system of Suzhou. Environ Sci: Processes Impacts2017;
19: 666–675.
3.
CaoSJCenDZhangWFengZ.Study on the impacts of human walking on indoor particles dispersion using momentum theory method. Build Environ2017;
126: 195–206.
4.
BrookRDRajagopalanSPopeIICBrookJRBhatnagarADiez-RouxAVPetersA.Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease: an update to the scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation2010;
121: 2331–2378.
5.
Pope IiiCABurnettRTThunMJCalleEEKrewskiDItoKThurstonGD.Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. JAMA2002;
287: 1132–1141.
6.
GoldbergM.A systematic review of the relation between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and chronic diseases. Rev Environ Health2008;
23: 243–298.
7.
AnenbergSCHorowitzLWTongDQWestJJ.An estimate of the global burden of anthropogenic ozone and fine particulate matter on premature human mortality using atmospheric modeling. Environ Health Perspect2010;
118: 1189–1195.
8.
YangGWangYZengYGaoGFLiangXZhouMVosT.Rapid health transition in China, 1990–2010: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet2013;
381: 1987–2015.
9.
SongCHeJWuLJinTChenXLiRMaoH.Health burden attributable to ambient PM2.5 in China. Environ Pollut2017;
223: 575–586.
10.
XieRSabelCELuXZhuWKanHNielsenCPWangH.Long-term trend and spatial pattern of PM2. 5 induced premature mortality in China. Environ Int2016;
97: 180–186.
11.
GengTTZhangMCaiWT.Preliminary investigation of heavy metal pollution in soils to part area a steel factory in North. Environ Sci Technol2011;
34: 343–346.
12.
AbrahamsPW.Soils: their implications to human health. Sci Total Environ2002;
291: 1–32.
13.
ZhouYDengYWuPCaoSJ.The effects of ventilation and floor heating systems on the dispersion and deposition of fine particles in an enclosed environment. Build Environ2017;
125: 192–205.
14.
ChappellWRBeckBDBrownKGChaneyRCothernRCothernCRTsongasTA.Inorganic arsenic: a need and an opportunity to improve risk assessment. Environ Health Perspect1997;
105: 1060–1067.
15.
BenabedALimamKJanssensBBosschaertsW. Human foot tapping-induced particle resuspension in indoor environments: Flooring hardness effect. Indoor Built Environ. 2020; 29: 230–239.
16.
PopovichevaOBKozlovVSEnglingGDiapouliEPersiantsevaNMTimofeevMEleftheriadisK.Small-scale study of Siberian biomass burning: I. Smoke microstructure. Aerosol Air Qual Res2015;
15: 117–128.
17.
AkramWMadhukuMAhmadIXiaolinLZhangGYanL.Morphology, microstructure and chemical composition of single inhalable particles in Shanghai, China. Environ Monit Assess2014;
186: 8587–8598.
18.
ZhaoBZhangYLiXYangXHuangD.Comparison of indoor aerosol particle concentration and deposition in different ventilated rooms by numerical method. Build Environ2004;
39: 1–8.
19.
YinHLiuCZhangLLiAMaZ. Measurement and evaluation of indoor air quality in naturally ventilated residential buildings. Indoor Built Environ. 2019; 28:1307–1323.
20.
GaoNPNiuJLPerinoMHeiselbergP.The airborne transmission of infection between flats in high-rise residential buildings: tracer gas simulation. Build Environ2008;
43: 1805–1817.
21.
ZhuYLinB.Sustainable housing and urban construction in China. Energy Build2004;
36: 1287–1297.
22.
NiuJ.Some significant environmental issues in high-rise residential building design in urban areas. Energy Build2004;
36: 1259–1263.
23.
MonnCBeckerS.Cytotoxicity and induction of proinflammatory cytokines from human monocytes exposed to fine (PM2.5) and coarse particles (PM10–2.5) in outdoor and indoor air. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol1999;
155: 245–252.
24.
WuCZhangHFuSChanKQinDChaoCH. Ultrafine particle emissions from a smouldering cigarette in a residence and its associated lung cancer risk. Indoor Built Environ. 28: 1396–1405.
25.
SteinleSReisSSabelCESempleSTwiggMMBrabanCFWuH.Personal exposure monitoring of PM2.5 in indoor and outdoor microenvironments. Sci Total Environ2015;
508: 383–394.
26.
YangZLuWLongYBaoXYangQ.Assessment of heavy metals contamination in urban topsoil from Changchun City, China. J Geochem Explor2011;
108: 27–38.
27.
QiangLYangWJingshuangLQuanyingWMingyingZ.Grain-size distribution and heavy metal contamination of road dusts in urban parks and squares in Changchun, China. Environ Geochem Health2015;
37: 71–82.
28.
WeiBYangL.A review of heavy metal contaminations in urban soils, urban road dusts and agricultural soils from China. Microchem J2010;
94: 99–107.
29.
FangCZhangZJinMZouPWangJ.Pollution characteristics of PM2.5 aerosol during haze periods in Changchun, China. Aerosol Air Qual Res2017;
17: 888–895.
30.
LarsonTGouldTSimpsonCLiuLJSClaibornCLewtasJ.Source apportionment of indoor, outdoor, and personal PM2.5 in Seattle, Washington, using positive matrix factorization. J Air Waste Manage Assoc2004;
54: 1175–1187.
31.
CaoJJLeeSCChowJCChengYHoKFFungKLiuSXWastonJG.Indoor/outdoor relationships for PM2.5 and associated carbonaceous pollutants at residential homes in Hong Kong – case study. Indoor Air2005;
15: 197–204.
32.
GB/T18883-2002.Indoor air quality standard.
Beijing:
The Standardization Administration of the People's Republic of China, 2002.
33.
LeungAODuzgoren-AydinNSCheungKCWongMH.Heavy metals concentrations of surface dust from e-waste recycling and its human health implications in southeast China. Environ Sci Technol2008;
42: 2674–2680.
34.
AbrahimGMSParkerRJ.Assessment of heavy metal enrichment factors and the degree of contamination in marine sediments from Tamaki Estuary, Auckland, New Zealand. Environ Monit Assess2008;
136: 227–238.
35.
HsuSCLiuSCTsaiFEnglingGLinIIChouCKCHuangJC.High wintertime particulate matter pollution over an offshore island (Kinmen) off southeastern China: an overview. J Geophys Res2010;
115: 1383–1392.
36.
HernandezLProbstAProbstJLUlrichE.Heavy metal distribution in some French forest soils: evidence for atmospheric contamination. Sci Total Environ2003;
312: 195–219.
37.
Miguel Ede LlamasJFChacónEBergTLarssenSRøysetOVadsetM.Origin and patterns of distribution of trace elements in street dust: unleaded petrol and urban lead. Atmos Environ1997;
31: 2733–2740.
38.
JungKHBernabéKMoorsKYanBChillrudSNWhyattRMillerRL.Effects of floor level and building type on residential levels of outdoor and indoor polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, black carbon, and particulate matter in New York City. Atmosphere (Basel)2011;
2: 96–109.
39.
FacchinelliASacchiEMallenL.Multivariate statistical and GIS-based approach to identify heavy metal sources in soils. Environ Pollut2001;
114: 313–324.
40.
SunYZhouQXieXLiuR.Spatial, sources and risk assessment of heavy metal contamination of urban soils in typical regions of Shenyang, China. J Hazard Mater2010;
174: 455–462.
41.
GholamalizadehEMansouriSH.A comprehensive approach to design and improve a solar chimney power plant: a special case – Kerman project. Appl Energy2013;
102: 975–982.
42.
MicóCRecataláLPerisMSánchezJ.Assessing heavy metal sources in agricultural soils of an European Mediterranean area by multivariate analysis. Chemosphere2006;
65: 863–872.
43.
MassonMBlancGSchäferJ.Geochemical signals and source contributions to heavy metal (Cd, Zn, Pb, Cu) fluxes into the Gironde Estuary via its major tributaries. Sci Total Environ2006;
370: 133–146.
44.
WuXYYangYF.Heavy metal (Pb, Co, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn) concentrations in harvest-size white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei tissues from aquaculture and wild source. J Food Compos Anal2011;
24: 62–65.
45.
ChengHZhangYMengALiQ.Municipal solid waste fueled power generation in China: a case study of waste-to-energy in Changchun city. Environ Sci Technol2007;
41: 7509–7515.
46.
YeungZLLKwokRCWYuKN.Determination of multi-element profiles of street dust using energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF). Appl Radiat Isotopes2003;
58: 339–346.
47.
LoughGCSchauerJJParkJSShaferMMDeMinterJTWeinsteinJP.Emissions of metals associated with motor vehicle roadways. Environ Sci Technol2005;
39: 826–836.
48.
KimKHShonZHMauulidaPTSongSK.Long-term monitoring of airborne nickel (Ni) pollution in association with some potential source processes in the urban environment. Chemosphere2014;
111: 312–319.
49.
CaoHCLuanZQZhangXL.Potential ecological risk of cadmium, lead and arsenic in agricultural black soil in Jilin Province, China. Stoch Environ Res Risk Assess2009;
23: 57–64.
