Air distribution system could critically affect SARS-CoV-2 transmission in indoor space; therefore, this study aims at demonstrating numerical characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 migration with varied air distribution system configurations. Seven cases were investigated regarding three major aspects: how fast suspended particles can be removed from the ventilated space or changed into deposited particles; how much particles are attached to various object surfaces which leads to an infection by touching fomite. All cases were analyzed through computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Both different shapes (round or linear diffusers) and installation locations (ceiling or floor) of inlet and outlet diffusers were investigated. Results showed that different air distribution system would lead to different dispersion profiles of infectious particles and different deposition pattern of particles on interior surfaces. With the same air flow rate, linear-diffuser would perform better for CO2 extraction while requiring less time to remove or collide the same magnitude of suspended droplets compared to round-diffuser. However, how quickly removed or suspended droplets collide is not proportional to how less the number of total particles are remained. Two additional cases with double sized space possessing best ventilation configuration were also examined to explore potential application of the best-ventilated configuration to various spatial expansion cases.
MorawskaLTangJWBahnflethWBluyssenPMBoerstraABuonannoGCaoJJDancerSFlotoAFranchimonFHaworthCHogelingJIsaxonCJimenezJLKurnitskiJLiYLoomansMMarksGMarrLCMazzarellaLMelikovAKMillerSMiltonDKNazaroffWNielsenPVNoakesCPecciaJQuerolXSekharCSeppanenOTanabeSTellierRThamKWWargockiPWierzbickaAYaoM. How can airborne transmission of COVID-19 indoors be minimised?Environ Int2020; 142: 105832.
5.
RoweBRCanosaADrouffeJMMitchellJBA. Simple quantitative assessment of the outdoor versus indoor airborne transmission of viruses and COVID-19. Environ Res2021; 198: 111189.
6.
TellierRLiYCowlingBJTangJW. Recognition of aerosol transmission of infectious agents: a commentary. BMC Infect Dis2019; 19: 1–9.
7.
World Health Organization. Natural ventilation for infection control in health-care settings. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2009.
8.
BhattacharyyaSDeyKPaulARBiswasR. A novel CFD analysis to minimize the spread of COVID-19 virus in hospital isolation room. Chaos Solitons Fractals2020; 139: 110294.
9.
SettiLPassariniFDe GennaroGBarbieriPLicenSPerroneMGPiazzalungaABorelliMPalmisaniJDi GilioARizzoEColaoAPiscitelliPMianiA. Potential role of particulate matter in the spreading of COVID-19 in Northern Italy: first observational study based on initial epidemic diffusion. BMJ Open2020; 10(9): e039338.
GuoMXuPXiaoTHeRDaiMMillerSL. Review and comparison of HVAC operation guidelines in different countries during the COVID-19 pandemic. Build Environ2021; 187: 107368.
12.
ChiricoFSaccoABragazziNLMagnavitaN. Can air-conditioning systems contribute to the spread of SARS/MERS/COVID-19 infection? insights from a rapid review of the literature. Int J Environ Res Public Health2020; 17: 6052.
13.
Federation of European heating, ventilation and air conditioning associations. REHVA COVID-19 guidance. Brussels: Federation of European Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning Associations, 2021.
14.
ZhengWHuJWangZLiJFuZLiHJuraszJChouSKYanJ. COVID-19 impact on operation and energy consumption of heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems. Adv Appl Energ2021; 3: 100040.
15.
CorreiaGRodriguesLGameiro da SilvaMGonçalvesT. Airborne route and bad use of ventilation systems as non-negligible factors in SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Med Hypotheses2020; 141: 109781.
16.
LiuDL. Particle deposition onto enclosure surfaces. Dev Surf Contam Clean Part Depos Control Remov2010; 2009: 1–56.
ShaoSZhouDHeRLiJZouSMalleryKKumarSYangSHongJ. Risk assessment of airborne transmission of COVID-19 by asymptomatic individuals under different practical settings. J Aerosol Sci2021; 151: 105661.
19.
LiuHHeSShenLHongJ. Simulation-based study of COVID-19 outbreak associated with air-conditioning in a restaurant. Phys Fluids2021; 33: 1–18.
20.
ZhangSDiaoMYYuWPeiLLinZChenD. Estimation of the reproductive number of novel coronavirus (COVID-19) and the probable outbreak size on the diamond princess cruise ship: a data-driven analysis. Int J Infect Dis2020; 93: 201–204.
21.
QianHMiaoTLiuLZhengXLuoDLiY. Indoor transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Indoor Air2021; 31: 639–645.
22.
ParkDYChangS. Tracing indoor contaminant release location based on local mean residual-life-time of air. Int J Vent2021; 20: 135–157.
23.
GuptaJKLinCHChenQ. Transport of expiratory droplets in an aircraft cabin. Indoor Air2011; 21: 3–11.
24.
MorawskaL. Droplet fate in indoor environments, or can we prevent the spread of infection?Indoor Air2006; 16: 335–347.
25.
XieXLiYChwangATYHoPLSetoWH. How far droplets can move in indoor environments - revisiting the wells evaporation-falling curve. Indoor Air2007; 17: 211–225.
26.
YangSLeeGWMChenC-MWuC-CYuK-P. The size and concentration of droplets generated by coughing in human subjects. J Aerosol Med Depos Clear Eff Lung2007; 20: 484–494.
27.
GuptaJKLinCHChenQ. Characterizing exhaled airflow from breathing and talking. Indoor Air2010; 20: 31–39.
28.
GuptaJKLinCHChenQ. Flow dynamics and characterization of a cough. Indoor Air2009; 19: 517–525.
29.
YangCYangXZhaoB. Person to person droplets transmission characteristics in unidirectional ventilated protective isolation room: the impact of initial droplet size. Build Simul2016; 9: 597–606.
30.
YuHCMuiKWWongLTChuHS. Ventilation of general hospital wards for mitigating infection risks of three kinds of viruses including Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Indoor Built Environ2017; 26: 514–527.
31.
MorawskaLCaoJ. Airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2: the world should face the reality. Environ Int2020; 139: 105730.
32.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. ASHRAE positions on infectious aerosols. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, 2022.
33.
StaveckisABorodinecsA. Impact of impinging jet ventilation on thermal comfort and indoor air quality in office buildings. Energy Build2021; 235: 110738.
34.
ShihTHLiouWWShabbirAYangZZhuJ. A new k-ϵ eddy viscosity model for high Reynolds number turbulent flows. Comput Fluids1995; 24: 227–238.
35.
AlsaadHVoelkerC. Performance assessment of a ductless personalized ventilation system using a validated cfd model. J Build Perform Simul2018; 11: 689–704.
36.
LiuZYinDNiuYCaoGLiuHWangL. Effect of human thermal plume and ventilation interaction on bacteria- carrying particles diffusion in operating room microenvironment. Energy Build2022; 254: 111573.
37.
LiuHLiuZWangYHuCRongR. Distribution of droplets/droplet nuclei from coughing and breathing of patients with different postures in a hospital isolation ward. Build Environ2022; 225: 109690.
38.
PatankarSV. Numerical heat transfer and fluid flow. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1980.
39.
VersteegHKMalalasekeraW. An introduction to computational fluid dynamics. Englewood: Prentice-Hall, 2007.
40.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. ASHRAE handbook - fundamentals. Atlanta, Georgia: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, 2009.
41.
ZhaoBZhangYLiXYangXHuangD. Comparison of indoor aerosol particle concentration and deposition in different ventilated rooms by numerical method. Build Environ2004; 39: 1–8.
ZhangZChenQ. Experimental measurements and numerical simulations of particle transport and distribution in ventilated rooms. Atmos Environ2006; 40: 3396–3408.
44.
ChenFYuSCMLaiACK. Modeling particle distribution and deposition in indoor environments with a new drift-flux model. Atmos Environ2006; 40: 357–367.
45.
GaoNPNiuJL. Modeling particle dispersion and deposition in indoor environments. Atmos Environ2007; 41: 3862–3876.
46.
ZhaoBYangCYangXLiuS. Particle dispersion and deposition in ventilated rooms: Testing and evaluation of different Eulerian and Lagrangian models. Build Environ2008; 43: 388–397.
47.
ParkDYChangS. Numerical investigation of thermal comfort and transport of expiratory contaminants in a ventilated office with an air curtain system. Indoor Built Environ2019; 28: 401–421.
48.
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Controls. Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems in the context of COVID-19, Stockholm: European Centre for Disease Prevention and Controls, 2020.
49.
AganovicASteffensenMCaoG. CFD study of the air distribution and occupant draught sensation in a patient ward equipped with protected zone ventilation. Build Environ2019; 162: 106279.
