We suggest that self-construal and face concerns influence individuals’ collective action intentions against sexism. We examined female students from Germany (N = 105), Japan (N = 112), and Turkey, (N = 111), exposed them to a benevolent and a hostile sexism scenario, and compared their collective action intentions and indirect conflict management styles (avoiding, outflanking) within countries. As predicted, German and Turkish female students’ collective action intentions against sexism surpassed their intentions for indirect conflict management styles, whereas the reverse was true for Japanese female students. However, Japanese female students had an unaccomplished desire for collective action, suggesting that they wish to act but decide against open confrontation to maintain ingroup harmony. The higher individuals’ independent self-concept and the less they value face, the higher their collective action intentions against hostile sexism in all three countries. We discuss culturally appropriate ways of collective action.
BarretoM.EllemersN. (2005a). The burden of benevolent sexism: How it contributes to the maintenance of gender inequalities. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 633–642. doi:10.1002/ejsp.270
BeckerJ. C. (2010). Why do women endorse hostile and benevolent sexism? The role of salient female subtypes and internalization of sexist contents. Sex Roles, 62, 453–467. doi:10.1007/s11199–009–9707–4
4.
BeckerJ. C.BarretoM. (2014). Ways to go: Men’s and women’s support for aggressive and non-aggressive confrontation of sexism as a function of gender identification. Journal of Social Issues, 70, 668–686. doi:10.1111/josi.12085
5.
BeckerJ. C.BarretoM.KahnK. B.de Oliveira LauxS. H. (2015). The collective value of “me” (and its limitations): Towards a more nuanced understanding of individual and collective coping with prejudice. Journal of Social Issues, 71, 497–516. doi:10.1111/josi.12125
6.
BeckerJ. C.GlickP.IlicM.BohnerG. (2011). Damned if she does, damned if she doesn’t: Consequences of accepting versus confronting patronizing help for the female target and male actor. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 761–773. doi:10.1002/ejsp.823
7.
BeckerJ. C.SwimJ. K. (2011). Seeing the unseen attention to daily encounters with sexism as way to reduce sexist beliefs. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 227–242. doi:10.1177/0361684310397509
8.
BeckerJ. C.WrightS. C. (2011). Yet another dark side of chivalry: Benevolent sexism undermines and hostile sexism motivates collective action for social change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 62–77. doi:10.1037/a0022615
9.
BeckerJ. C.ZawadzkiM. J.ShieldsS. A. (2014). Confronting and reducing sexism: A call for research on intervention. Journal of Social Issues, 70, 603–614. doi:10.1111/josi.12081
10.
BohnerG.AhlbornK.SteinerR. (2010). How sexy are sexist men? Women’s perception of male response profiles in the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory. Sex Roles, 62, 568–582. doi:10.1007/s11199–009–9665-x
11.
BrettJ.BehfarK.Sanchez-BurksJ. (2014). Managing cross-culture conflicts: A close look at the implication of direct versus indirect confrontation. In AyokoO. B.AshkanasyN. M.JehnK. A. (Eds.), Handbook of conflict management research (pp. 136–154). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
12.
ChoiS.-C.LeeS.-J. (2002). Two-component model of chemyon-oriented behaviors in Korea: Constructive and defensive chemyon. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 33, 332–345. doi:10.1177/0022022102033003008
13.
ColeM. S.BedeianA. G.FeildH. S. (2006). The measurement equivalence of web-based and paper-and-pencil measures of transformational leadership. Organizational Research Methods, 9, 339–368. doi:10.1177/1094428106287434
14.
DavidovE.DepnerF. (2011). Testing for measurement equivalence of human values across online and paper-and-pencil surveys. Quality & Quantity, 45, 375–390. doi:10.1007/s11135–009–9297–9
15.
ErhartI. (2013). Biopolitics & the Gezi protests. In ChouT. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2013 international conference on the modern development of humanities and social science (pp. 301–303). Paris: Atlantis Press.
16.
GervaisS. J.HillardA. L.VescioT. K. (2010). Confronting sexism: The role of relationship orientation and gender. Sex Roles, 63, 463–474. doi:10.1007/s11199–010–9838–7
17.
GlickP.FiskeS. T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491–512. doi:10.1037/0022–3514.70.3.491
18.
GlickP.FiskeS. T.MladinicA.SaizJ. L.AbramsD.MasserB.. . . LópezW. L. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 763–775. doi:10.1037/0022–3514.79.5.763
19.
GwaltneyC. J.ShieldsA. L.ShiffmanS. (2008). Equivalence of electronic and paper-and-pencil administration of patient-reported outcome measures: A meta-analytic review. Value in Health, 11, 322–333. doi:10.1111/j.1524–4733.2007.00231.x
20.
HashimotoH.YamagishiT. (2013). Two faces of interdependence: Harmony seeking and rejection avoidance. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 16, 142–151. doi:10.1111/ajsp.12022
21.
HenrichJ.HeineS. J.NorenzayanA. (2010). The weirdest people in the world. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61–83. doi:10.1017/S0140525X0999152X
22.
HyersL. L. (2007). Resisting prejudice every day: Exploring women’s assertive responses to anti-Black racism, anti-Semitism, heterosexism, and sexism. Sex Roles, 56, 1–12. doi:10.1007/s11199–006–9142–8
23.
JackmanM. R. (1994). The velvet glove: Paternalism and conflict in gender, class, and race relations. Berkeley: University of California Press.
24.
JostJ. T.KayA. C. (2005). Exposure to benevolent sexism and complementary gender stereotypes: Consequences for specific and diffuse forms of system justification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 498–509. doi:10.1037/0022–3514.88.3.498
25.
KagitçibasiÇ. (1996). The autonomous-relational self. European Psychologist, 1, 180–186. doi:10.1027/1016–9040.1.3.180
26.
KaiserC. R.MillerC. T. (2001). Stop complaining! The social costs of making attributions to discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 254–263. doi:10.1177/0146167201272010
27.
KaiserC. R.MillerC. T. (2004). A stress and coping perspective on confronting sexism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 168–178. doi:10.1111/j.1471–6402.2004.00133.x
28.
KanagawaC.CrossS. E.MarkusH. R. (2001). “Who am I?” The cultural psychology of the conceptual self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 90–103. doi:10.1177/0146167201271008
KhūrīF. I. (1990). Tents and pyramids: Games and ideology in Arab culture from backgammon to autocratic rule. London, UK: Saqi Books.
31.
KilianskiS. E.RudmanL. A. (1998). Wanting it both ways: Do women approve of benevolent sexism?Sex Roles, 39, 333–352. doi:10.1023/A:1018814924402
32.
KimM.AuneK. S.HunterJ. E.KimH.KimJ. (2001). The effect of culture and self-construals on predispositions toward verbal communication. Human Communication Research, 27, 382–408. doi:10.1111/j.1468–2958.2001.tb00786.x
33.
LeeE. A.SotoJ. A.SwimJ. K.BernsteinM. J. (2012). Bitter reproach or sweet revenge: Cultural differences in response to racism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 920–932. doi:10.1177/0146167212440292
34.
LeungA. K.-Y.CohenD. (2011). Within- and between-culture variation: Individual differences and the cultural logics of honor, face, and dignity cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 507–526. doi:10.1037/a0022151
35.
MakW. W.ChenS. X.LamA. G.YiuV. F. (2008). Understanding distress: The role of face concern among Chinese Americans, European Americans, Hong Kong Chinese, and Mainland Chinese. The Counseling Psychologist, 37, 219–248. doi:10.1177/0011000008316378
36.
MallettR. K.WagnerD. E. (2011). The unexpectedly positive consequences of confronting sexism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 215–220. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.10.001
37.
MarkusH. R.KitayamaS. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253. doi:10.1037/0033–295X.98.2.224
38.
MasgoretA.-M.WardC. (2006). Culture learning approach to acculturation. In SamD. L.BerryJ. W. (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of acculturation psychology (pp. 58–77). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
39.
MathesonK.FosterM. D. (2013). Coping with the stress of gender discrimination. In RyanM. K.BranscombeN. R. (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of gender and psychology (pp. 323–340). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE.
40.
MeadeA. W.MichelsL. C.LautenschlagerG. J. (2007). Are Internet and paper-and-pencil personality tests truly comparable? An experimental design measurement invariance study. Organizational Research Methods, 10, 322–345. doi:10.1177/1094428106289393
41.
OhbuchiK.-I.AtsumiE. (2010). Avoidance brings Japanese employees what they care about in conflict management: Its functionality and “good member” image. Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 3, 117–129. doi:10.1111/j.1750–4716.2010.00052.x
42.
OhbuchiK.-I.TakahashiY. (1994). Cultural styles of conflict management in Japanese and Americans: Passivity, covertness, and effectiveness of strategies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24, 1345–1366. doi:10.1111/j.1559–1816.1994.tb01553.x
43.
ÖnerZ. H. (2012). Servant leadership and paternalistic leadership styles in the Turkish business context: A comparative empirical study. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 33, 300–316. doi:10.1108/01437731211216489
44.
PellegriniE. K.ScanduraT. A. (2008). Paternalistic leadership: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Management, 34, 566–593. doi:10.1177/0149206308316063
45.
PollayR. W.LysonskiS. (1993). In the eye of the beholder: International differences in ad sexism perceptions and reactions. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 6, 25–43. doi:10.1300/J046v06n02_04
46.
RahimM. A. (1983). A measure of styles of handling interpersonal conflict. Academy of Management Journal, 26, 368–376. doi:10.2307/255985
47.
SheltonJ. N.StewartR. E. (2004). Confronting perpetrators of prejudice: The inhibitory effects of social costs. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 215–223. doi:10.1111/j.1471–6402.2004.00138.x
48.
SibleyC. G.PerryR. (2010). An opposing process model of benevolent sexism. Sex Roles, 62, 438–452. doi:10.1007/s11199–009–9705–6
49.
SwimJ. K.HyersL. L. (1999). Excuse me—what did you just say?!: Women’s public and private responses to sexist remarks. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 68–88. doi:10.1006/jesp.1998.1370
50.
SwimJ. K.HyersL. L. (2009). Sexism. In NelsonT. D. (Ed.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination (pp. 407–430). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
51.
SwimJ. K.MallettR.Russo-DevosaY.StangorC. (2005). Judgments of sexism: A comparison of the subtlety of sexism measures and sources of variability in judgments of sexism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 406–411. doi:10.1111/j.1471–6402.2005.00240.x
52.
TauschN.BeckerJ. C.SpearsR.ChristO.SaabR.SinghP.SiddiquiR. N. (2011). Explaining radical group behavior: Developing emotion and efficacy routes to normative and nonnormative collective action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 129–148. doi:10.1037/a0022728
53.
Ting-ToomeyS.GaoG.TrubiskyP.YangZ.Soo KimH.LinS.-L.NishidaT. (1991). Culture, face maintenance, and styles of handling interpersonal conflict: A study in five cultures. International Journal of Conflict Management, 2, 275–296. doi:10.1108/eb022702
54.
Ting-ToomeyS.KurogiA. (1998). Facework competence in intercultural conflict: An updated face-negotiation theory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 22, 187–225. doi:10.1016/S0147–1767(98)00004–2
55.
TjosvoldD.SunH. F. (2002). Understanding conflict avoidance: Relationship, motivations, actions, and consequences. International Journal of Conflict Management, 13, 142–164. doi:10.1108/eb022872
56.
TriandisH. C. (1972). The analysis of subjective culture. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Interscience.
57.
WoodzickaJ. A.LaFranceM. (2001). Real versus imagined gender harassment. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 15–30. doi:10.1111/0022–4537.00199
58.
WrightS. C.TaylorD. M.MoghaddamF. M. (1990). Responding to membership in a disadvantaged group: From acceptance to collective protest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 994–1003. doi:10.1037/0022–3514.58.6.994
59.
YamaguchiK. (2013). Housewives-lib and co-op in Japan (1970s–1990s). In de HaanF.AllenM.PurvisJ.DaskalovaK. (Eds.), Women’s activism: Global perspectives from the 1890s to the present (pp. 136–150). New York, NY: Routledge.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
