This article addresses the issue of whether bilingual children begin phonological acquisition with one phonological system or two. Five hypotheses are suggested for the possible structure of the bilingual child's phonological system. Analyses of data from a longitudinal study of a Farsi-English bilingual infant, Arsham, supported the hypothesis that the child had acquired two separate phonologies with mutual influence; that is, he made occasional use of phonological features of Farsi in English words and vice-versa. It is suggested that this was due to the pattern of exposure to the two languages, and that other children may show a different pattern, depending on their exposure to the two languages and the role of language dominance.
Allen, G., & Hawkins, S. (1980). Phonological rhythm: Definition and development . In G. Yeni-Komshian, J. Kavanaugh, & C. Ferguson (Eds.), Child phonology, Vol. 1: Production (pp. 227-256). New York: Academic Press.
2.
Bergman, C.R. (1976). Interference versus independent development in infant bilingualism. In G. Keller, R. Teschner & S. Viera (Eds.), Bilingualism in bicentennial and beyond. New York: Bilingual Press.
3.
Bhatia, T.K., & Ritchie, W.C. (1999). The bilingual child: Some issues and perspectives . In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of child language acquisition (pp.569-643). San Diego: Academic Press.
4.
Dehouwer, A. (1990). The acquisition of two languages:A case study . Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
5.
Deuchar, M., & Clark, A. (1996). Early bilingual acquisition of the voicing contrast in English and Spanish. Journal of Phonetics, 24, 351-365.
6.
Fahim, M. (1994). The development of the Persian language: First language acquisition. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Islamic Azad University, Tehran.
7.
Ferguson, C.A. (1957). Word stress in Persian. Language , 33, 123-136.
8.
Genesee, F. (1989). Early bilingual development: One language or two ?Journal of Child Language, 6, 161-179.
9.
Genesee, F., Nicoladis, E., & Paradis, J. (1995). Language differentiation in early bilingual development . Journal of Child Language, 22, 611-632.
10.
Gheorghov, I. (1905). Die ersten Anfänge des sprachlichen Ausdrucks für das Selbstbewussten bei Kindern. Archiv für die gesamte Psychologie, 5, 329-404.
11.
Giegerich, H. (1992). English phonology: An introduction. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
12.
Hakuta, K. (1986). Mirrorof language: The debate on bilingualism . New York: Basic Books.
13.
Haghshenas, A.M. (1977). Phonetics. (In Persian). Tehran : Agah Publications.
14.
Hochberg, J. (1988). First steps in the acquisition of Spanish stress . Journal of Child Language, 15, 273-292.
15.
Holm, A., & Dodd, B. (1998). A longitudinal study of the phonological development of two Cantonese-English bilingual children. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Speech, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K.
16.
Ingram, D. (1981). Procedures for the phonological analysis of children's language. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.
17.
Ingram, D. (1981/ 82). The emerging phonological system of an Italian-English bilingual child. Journal of Italian Linguistics, 95-113.
18.
Ingram, D. (1989). First language acquisition: Method, description and explanation. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
19.
Jackson-Maldonado, D., Thal, D., Marchman, V., Bates, E., & Gutierrez-Clellen, V. (1993). Early lexical development in Spanish-speaking infants and toddlers. Journal of Child Language, 20, 523-549.
20.
Johnson, C., & Lan Caster , P. (1998). The development of more than one phonology: A case study of a Norwegian-English bilingual child. International Journal of Bilingualism, 2, 265-300.
21.
Keshavarz, M.H. (1985). Techniques and procedures for teaching English pronunciation to Iranian students. ROSHD FLTJ, 1, 1-5.
22.
Lanza, E. (1997). Language mixing in infant bilingualism: A sociolinguistic perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
23.
Leonard, L.B., & Bortolini, U. (1991). The speech of phonologically disordered children acquiring Italian. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 5, 1-12.
24.
Leopold, W. (1970). (cf. 1939-49). Speech development of a bilingual child. A linguistic's record. Four Volumes. New York: AMS Press.
25.
Meisel, J.M. (1989). Early differentiation of languages in bilingual children. In K. Hyltenstam & L. Obler (Eds.), Bilingualism across the lifespan: In health and pathology. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
26.
Naderi, E., & Seifnaraghi, M. (1992). Speech and language development of Persian-speaking children from birth to eight years of age. (In Persian). Tehran: Teacher Training University Press.
27.
Obelensky, S., Panah, K.Y., & Nouri, P.K. (1963). Persian basic course. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
28.
Padilla, A.M., & Liebman, E. (1975). Language acquisition in a bilingual child. Bilingual Review, 2, 34-55.
29.
Paradis, J. (1996). Prosodic development and differentiation in bilingual first language acquisition. In A. Stringfellow , D. Cahana-Amitay, E. Hughes, & A. Zukowski (Eds.), Proceedings of the 20th Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development (pp.528-539). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.
30.
Paradis, J., & Genesee, F. (1996). Syntactic acquisition in bilingual children: Autonomous or interdependent? Studies in Second Language Acquisition , 18, 1-25.
31.
Pye, C., Ingram, D., & List, H. (1987). A comparison of initial consonant acquisition in English and Quiche. In K. E. Nelson & Van Kleek (Eds.), Children's Language, Vol.6 (pp. 170-190). Hilsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
32.
Quay, S. (1995). The bilingual lexicon: Implications for studies on language choice. Journal of Child Language, 22, 369-387.
33.
Sam Are, Y. (1985). Persian phonetics. Tehran: Iran University Press.
34.
Schnitzer, M.L., & Krasinski, E. (1994). The development of segmental phonological production in a bilingual child. Journal of Child Language, 21, 585-622.
35.
Schnitzer, M.L., & Krasinski, E. (1996). The development of segmental phonological production in a bilingual child: A contrasting second case. Journal of Child Language, 23, 547-571.
36.
Shiri, R. (1987). A contrastive study of stress placement on English and Persian words including frequency considerations for pedagogical purposes. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Shiraz University.
37.
Stoel-Gammon, C. (1985). Phonetic inventories, 15 to 24 months: A longitudinal study. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 28, 505-512.
38.
Vihman, M.M. (1985). Language differentiation by the bilingual infant . Journal of Child Language, 12, 297-324.
39.
Vihman, M.M. (1996). Phonologicaldevelopment: The origins of language in the child. Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell .
40.
Vogel, I. (1975). One system or two: An analysis of a two-year-old Romanian-English bilingual's phonology. Papers and Reports on Child Language Development, 9, 43-62.
41.
Volterra, V., & Taeschner, T. (1978). The acquisition and development of language by bilingual children. Journal ofChild Language, 5, 311-326.
42.
Yarmohammadi, L. (1985). An introduction to phonetics (In Persian). Tehran: Iran University Press.
43.
Yarmohammadi, L. (1996). A contrastive phonological analysis of English and Persian. Shiraz: Shiraz University Press.
