This study aims to investigate how the linguistic landscape can affect self-efficacy to improve the students’ foreign language enjoyment and learning in China with an emphasis on the moderating effect of language policy. It is crucial to establish how these factors influence students’ achievement in foreign language education in China. The current study sample comprised 550 students from different educational institutes in Beijing, China. Data were collected using convenience sampling technique. The study applied structural equation modeling (SEM) for analyzing the data using IBM SPSS AMOS software. The results affirm all proposed hypotheses. The findings reveal that linguistic landscape has a direct influence on self-efficacy (H1) and foreign language enjoyment and learning (H2). Self-efficacy has a positive effect on foreign language enjoyment and learning (H3). Self-efficacy positively mediates the relationship between linguistic landscape and foreign language enjoyment and learning (H4). Language policy has a positive and significant moderation effect between self-efficacy and foreign language enjoyment and learning. This study should be appreciated by educational institutions in recognizing the existing linguistic landscape as well as the policy that should be adopted in foreign language learning to improve the learning process and achievement.
AlfayezA.F. (2022). Saudi teachers’ self-efficacy in implementing the Arabic language integrative curriculum. Education Research International, 2022(1), 6823935.
2.
AlhadabiA.KarpinskiA.C. (2020). Grit, self-efficacy, achievement orientation goals, and academic performance in university students. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25(1), 519–535.
3.
AlibakhshiG.NikdelF.LabbafiA. (2020). Exploring the consequences of teachers’ self-efficacy: A case of teachers of English as a foreign language. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 5(1), 23.
4.
AnZ.WangC.LiS.GanZ.LiH. (2021). Technology-assisted self-regulated English language learning: Associations with English language self-efficacy, English enjoyment, and learning outcomes. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 558466.
5.
AnggrainiH.W.HayatiR.PitalokaN.L. (2020). Students’ perceptions in a diverse language classroom: The case of one public university in Indonesia. Indonesian Research Journal in Education | IRJE, 4(2), 433–447.
6.
AtmowardoyoH.SakkirG. (2021). The development of language learning theory based on best practice: A literature review. Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Languages and Arts (ICLA 2021). (pp. 172–184). Atlantis Press.
7.
BanduraA. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.
8.
BensalemE.ThompsonA.S. (2022). Multilingual effects on EFL learning: A comparison of foreign language anxiety and self-confidence experienced by bilingual and multilingual tertiary students. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(7), 2653–2667.
9.
BentlerP.M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238.
10.
Bernardo-HinesleyS. (2020). Linguistic landscape in educational spaces. Journal of Culture and Values in Education, 3(2), 13–23.
11.
Bhagwani HemnaniB.M. (2023). The development of oral interaction: The use of functional language to achieve communicative efficiency in the EFL classroom [Master’s thesis, Universidad de La Laguna]. Repositorio Institucional de la Universidad de La Laguna.
12.
Bonacina-PughF.BarakosE.ChenQ. (2022). Language policy in the internationalisation of Higher Education in Anglophone countries: The interplay between language policy as ‘text’,‘discourse’and ‘practice’. Applied Linguistics Review, 13(6), 1103–1125.
13.
BotesE.L.DewaeleJ.-M.GreiffS. (2020). The power to improve: Effects of multilingualism and perceived proficiency on enjoyment and anxiety in foreign language learning. European Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(2), 279–306.
14.
BourinaH.V.DunaevaL.A. (2019). The conceptual model of the artificial linguistic educational environment for achieving oral communication skills in a second foreign language. E-Learning and Digital Media, 16(1), 63–76.
15.
CalafatoR. (2023). Charting the motivation, self-efficacy beliefs, language learning strategies, and achievement of multilingual university students learning Arabic as a foreign language. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 8(1), 20.
16.
CenozJ.GorterD. (2022). Pedagogical translanguaging and its application to language classes. RELC Journal, 53(2), 342–354.
17.
ChewS.L.CerbinW.J. (2021). The cognitive challenges of effective teaching. The Journal of Economic Education, 52(1), 17–40.
18.
ChristisonM. (2023). Pre-service teachers’ beliefs, practices, emerging ideologies about multilingualism and self-efficacy relative to teaching multilingual learners. Languages, 8(1), 41.
19.
CsizérK.AlbertÁ.PinielK. (2021). The interrelationship of language learning autonomy, self-efficacy, motivation and emotions: The investigation of Hungarian secondary school students. In M. Pawlak (Ed.), Investigating individual learner differences in second language learning (pp. 1–21). Springer.
20.
CunninghamV.M. (2021). The impact of high-stakes testing: The experiences of educators, students, and parents in Trinidad and Tobago. University of Sheffield.
21.
De CostaP.I.ParkJ.WeeL. (2019). Linguistic entrepreneurship as affective regime: Organizations, audit culture, and second/foreign language education policy. Language Policy, 18, 387–406.
22.
D’OrazziG. (2020). Influences of willingness to communicate and foreign language enjoyment on second language learners’ motivation. Konińskie Studia Językowe, 8(3), 263–293.
23.
Douglas Fir Group. (2016). A transdisciplinary framework for SLA in a multilingual world. The Modern Language Journal, 100(S1), 19–47.
24.
DufonM.A.ChurchillE. (2006). Language learners in study abroad contexts. Multilingual Matters.
25.
FathiJ.PawlakM.KrukM.NaderiM. (2023). Modelling boredom in the EFL context: An investigation of the role of coping self-efficacy, mindfulness, and foreign language enjoyment. Language Teaching Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688231182176
26.
FengA.AdamsonB. (2019). Language policies in education in the People’s Republic of China. In A. Kirkpatrick & A. J. Liddicoat (Eds.), The Routledge international handbook of language education policy in Asia (pp. 45–59). Routledge.
27.
FieldingR. (2021). A multilingual identity approach to intercultural stance in language learning. The Language Learning Journal, 49(4), 466–482.
28.
FisherL.EvansM.ForbesK.GaytonA.LiuY.RutgersD. (2024). Language experiences, evaluations and emotions (3Es): analysis of structural models of multilingual identity for language learners in schools in England. International Journal of Multilingualism, 21(1), 418–438.
29.
FornellC.LarckerD.F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(3), 382–388.
30.
GaleJ.AlemdarM.CappelliC.MorrisD. (2021). A mixed methods study of self-efficacy, the sources of self-efficacy, and teaching experience. Frontiers in Education, 6, 750599.
31.
GencG.KulusakliE.AydinS. (2016). Exploring EFL learners’ perceived self-efficacy and beliefs on English language learning. Australian Journal of Teacher Education (Online), 41(2), 53–68.
32.
GetieA.S. (2020). Factors affecting the attitudes of students towards learning English as a foreign language. Cogent Education, 7(1), 1738184.
33.
GoldA.H.MalhotraA.SegarsA.H. (2001). Knowledge management: An organizational capabilities perspective. Journal of Management Information Systems, 18(1), 185–214.
34.
GorterD.CenozJ.der WorpK.V. (2021). The linguistic landscape as a resource for language learning and raising language awareness. Journal of Spanish Language Teaching, 8(2), 161–181.
35.
GrahamS. (2022). Self-efficacy and language learning–what it is and what it isn’t. The Language Learning Journal, 50(2), 186–207.
36.
GulR.AyubA.MazharS.UddinS.S.KhanumM. (2021). Teachers’ perceptions on students’ cultural and linguistic diversity and its impact on their approaches towards culturally teaching practices. TESOL International Journal, 16(3–2), 89–105.
37.
HairJ.BlackW.C.BabinB.J.AndersonR.E.TathamR. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Prentice Hall.
38.
HairJ.HultG.T.M.RingleC.SarstedtM. (2016). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Sage.
39.
HameedW.U.HaseebM.IqbalJ.MihardjoL.W.JermsittiparsertK. (2022). Environmental disaster and women self-sustainability—A survey study on microfinance female clientele in Pakistan. International Journal of Finance & Economics, 27(3), 3599–3622.
40.
HanI. (2022). Contextualization of communicative language teaching in confucian heritage culture: Challenging pedagogic dichotomization. SAGE Open, 12(1), 21582440221079895.
41.
HaugenE. (1972). The ecology of language. Stanford University Press.
42.
HayesA.F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford Publications.
43.
HenselerJ.RingleC.M.SarstedtM. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43, 115–135.
44.
HuL.-T.BentlerP.M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3(4), 424.
45.
HuX.ZhangX.McGeownS. (2024). Foreign language anxiety and achievement: A study of primary school students learning English in China. Language Teaching Research, 28(4), 1594–1615.
46.
HwangG.-J.RahimiM.FathiJ. (2024). Enhancing EFL learners’ speaking skills, foreign language enjoyment, and language-specific grit utilising the affordances of a MALL app: A microgenetic perspective. Computers & Education, 214, 105015.
47.
IwuanyanwuP.N. (2022). Facilitating problem solving in a university undergraduate physics classroom: The case of students’ self-efficacy. Interdisciplinary Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 18(2), e2270.
48.
JavaidZ.K.AndleebN.RanaS. (2023). Psychological perspective on advanced learners’ foreign language-related emotions across the four skills. Voyage Journal of Educational Studies, 3(2), 191–207.
49.
KarnchanachariS. (2020). Promoting communicative self-efficacy and a positive attitude towards English language learning through a collaborative authentic task. LEARN Journal: Language Education and Acquisition Research Network, 13(1), 210–224.
50.
KarpavaS. (2024). Multilingual linguistic landscape of Cyprus. International Journal of Multilingualism, 21(2), 823–861.
51.
KimH.-I.ChaK.-A. (2017). Effects of experience abroad and language proficiency on self-efficacy beliefs in language learning. Psychological Reports, 120(4), 670–694.
52.
LiJ.WangC.ZhaoY.LiY. (2023). Boosting learners’ confidence in learning English: Can self-efficacy-based intervention make a difference?TESOL Quarterly, 58(4), 1518–1547.
53.
LiW. (2022). Resilience among language learners: The roles of support, self-efficacy, and buoyancy. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 854522.
54.
LinY.-J.WangH.-C. (2021). Using virtual reality to facilitate learners’ creative self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation in an EFL classroom. Education and Information Technologies, 26(4), 4487–4505.
55.
LiuG.Z.FathiJ.RahimiM. (2024). Using digital gamification to improve language achievement, foreign language enjoyment, and ideal L2 self: A case of English as a foreign language learners. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 40(4), 1347–1364.
56.
Lo BiancoJ. (2020). A meeting of concepts and praxis: Multilingualism, language policy and the dominant language constellation. In J. Lo Bianco & L. Aronin (Eds.), Dominant language constellations: A new perspective on multilingualism (pp. 35–56).
57.
MaY. (2022). The effect of teachers’ self-efficacy and creativity on English as a foreign language learners’ academic achievement. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 872147.
58.
MillinerB.DimoskiB. (2024). The effects of a metacognitive intervention on lower-proficiency EFL learners’ listening comprehension and listening self-efficacy. Language Teaching Research, 28(2), 679–713.
59.
MishraM.PaniP. (2021). Exploring correlations among attitude, self-efficacy and English language achievement. Blue Rose Publishers.
60.
MohantyA.K. (2019). Language policy in education in India. In A. Kirkpatrick & A. J. Liddicoat (Eds.), The Routledge international handbook of language education policy in Asia (pp. 329–340). Routledge.
61.
MorenaK. (2021). The motivation of academics to learn foreign languages in the context of professional activity [Doctoral dissertation]. Pedagogical University of Kraków.
62.
MuriungiS.W.MudogoB.A. (2021). Linguistic landscape in a multilingual context: A case of Kenyan universities. LLT Journal: A Journal on Language and Language Teaching, 24(2), 450–460.
63.
MurphyV.ArndtH.Briggs Baffoe-DjanJ.ChalmersH.MacaroE.RoseH.VanderplankR.WooreR. (2020). Foreign language learning and its impact on wider academic outcomes: A rapid evidence assessment. Education Endowment Foundation.
64.
NawazM.HameedW.U.BhattiM.I. (2024). Integrating business and market intelligence to expedite service responsiveness: evidence from Malaysia. Quality & Quantity, 58(2), 1303–1324.
65.
NjemanzeQ.U. (2020). Linguistic landscape and symbolic construction of multilingual literacies: Between creativity and communication. International Journal of Linguistics, Literature and Translation (IJLLT), 3(1), 105–119.
66.
NunnallyJ.BernsteinI. (1994). The assessment of reliability. Psychometric Theory, 3(1), 248–292.
67.
OrtanF.SimutC.SimutR. (2021). Self-efficacy, job satisfaction and teacher well-being in the K-12 educational system. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(23), 12763.
68.
PassiatoreY.PirchioS.OlivaC.PannoA.CarrusG. (2019). Self-efficacy and anxiety in learning English as a Foreign language: Singing in class helps speaking performance. Journal of Educational, Cultural and Psychological Studies (ECPS Journal), 20, 121–138.
69.
RamzanM.JavaidZ.K.KareemA.MobeenS. (2023). Amplifying classroom enjoyment and cultivating positive learning attitudes among ESL learners. Pakistan Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 11(2), 2236–2246.
70.
RazzaqS. (2020). Exploring the integration of the metaverse in business model design education: Enhancing ESL learners’ language acquisition and proficiency in higher educational institutions. Journal of Metaverse Business Designs, 1(1), 37–46.
71.
SchunkD.H.DiBenedettoM.K. (2021). Self-efficacy and human motivation. In A. J. Elliot (Ed.), Advances in motivation science (Vol. 8, pp. 153–179). Elsevier.
72.
SchunkD.H.DiBenedettoM.K. (2022). Academic self-efficacy. In K.-A. Allen, M. J. Furlong, D. Vella-Brodrick, & S. M. Suldo (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology in schools (pp. 268–282). Routledge.
73.
SealsC.A. (2021). Classroom translanguaging through the linguistic landscape. In D. Malinowski, H. H. Maxim, S. Dubreil (Eds.), Language teaching in the linguistic landscape: Mobilizing pedagogy in public space (pp. 119–141). Springer.
74.
Shelton-StrongS.J.MynardJ. (2021). Promoting positive feelings and motivation for language learning: the role of a confidence-building diary. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 15(5), 458–472.
75.
SökmenY. (2021). The role of self-efficacy in the relationship between the learning environment and student engagement. Educational Studies, 47(1), 19–37.
76.
SolandJ.SandilosL.E. (2021). English language learners, self-efficacy, and the achievement gap: Understanding the relationship between academic and social-emotional growth. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 26(1), 20–44.
77.
SolikhahI.BudiharsoT. (2022). Linguistic landscape to improve quality of language learning and its relationship with blended learning, learning motivation and teacher competence. Eurasian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(3), 55–69.
78.
SpolskyB. (2004). Language policy. Cambridge University Press.
79.
SunT.WangC. (2020). College students’ writing self-efficacy and writing self-regulated learning strategies in learning English as a foreign language. System, 90, 102221.
80.
TangH.MaqboolA.KhanA.J.Ul HameedW.BatoolH.AhmedT. (2023). The moderating role of sustainable development goals in reviving the economy through green initiatives. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 11, 1180479.
81.
TasanM.MedeE.SadeghiK. (2021). The effect of pranayamic breathing as a positive psychology exercise on foreign language learning anxiety and test anxiety among language learners at tertiary level. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 742060.
82.
TengL.S. (2024). Individual differences in self-regulated learning: Exploring the nexus of motivational beliefs, self-efficacy, and SRL strategies in EFL writing. Language Teaching Research, 28(2), 366–388.
83.
ThompsonG.AizawaI.CurleS.RoseH. (2022). Exploring the role of self-efficacy beliefs and learner success in English medium instruction. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(1), 196–209.
84.
TripathiD. (2024). Metaverse-Enhanced islamic fintech: Uncovering the influencers of diffusion in Scotland. Journal of Metaverse Business Designs, 5(1), 1–13.
85.
Usán SupervíaP.Quílez RobresA. (2021). Emotional regulation and academic performance in the academic context: The mediating role of self-efficacy in secondary education students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(11), 5715.
86.
UstunA.B.SimsekE.Karaoglan-YilmazF.G.YilmazR. (2022). The effects of AR-enhanced English language learning experience on students’ attitudes, self-efficacy and motivation. TechTrends, 66(5), 798–809.
87.
WangY.ShenB.YuX. (2021). A latent profile analysis of EFL learners’ self-efficacy: Associations with academic emotions and language proficiency. System, 103, 102633.
88.
WangY.XinY.ChenL. (2024). Navigating the emotional landscape: Insights into resilience, engagement, and burnout among Chinese High School English as a Foreign Language Learners. Learning and Motivation, 86, 101978.
89.
WeeL.GohR.B. (2019). Language, space, and cultural play: Theorizing affect in the semiotic landscape. Cambridge University Press.
90.
WicaksonoB.H.IsmailS.M.SultanovaS.A.AbebaD. (2023). I like language assessment: EFL learners’ voices about self-assessment, self-efficacy, grit tendencies, academic resilience, and academic demotivation in online instruction. Language Testing in Asia, 13(1), 37.
91.
ZhangH.DaiY.WangY. (2020). Motivation and second foreign language proficiency: The mediating role of foreign language enjoyment. Sustainability, 12(4), 1302.
92.
ZhangR.ZouD. (2022). Types, purposes, and effectiveness of state-of-the-art technologies for second and foreign language learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 35(4), 696–742.
93.
ZhangT. (2024). Effects of self-regulation strategies on EFL learners’ language learning motivation, willingness to communication, self-efficacy, and creativity. BMC Psychology, 12(1), 75.
94.
ZielińskaA.LebudaI.GopA.KarwowskiM. (2024). Teachers as creative agents: How self-beliefs and self-regulation drive teachers’ creative activity. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 77, 102267.
