This study investigated the relationships between two vocabulary learning strategies (guessing from context and dictionary use) and two aspects of vocabulary knowledge (receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge). One hundred and thirty-five university students in Japan completed a vocabulary learning strategies survey, the Updated Vocabulary Levels Test, the Productive Vocabulary Levels Test, and Lex30. Results showed that the dictionary strategy significantly predicted receptive vocabulary knowledge, whereas no significant relationship between the guessing strategy and receptive vocabulary knowledge was observed. Neither guessing nor dictionary use significantly predicted productive vocabulary knowledge. Mediation analyses showed that dictionary use, but not guessing, had a significant indirect effect on productive lexicons via the development of receptive vocabulary knowledge. However, the extent to which the dictionary strategy is associated with productive vocabulary knowledge depended on how the knowledge was measured. The advantage of dictionary consultation in light of the quality of attention and type of focus induced by the strategy were discussed, and implications for second language (L2) vocabulary instruction were considered.
BarnettV. (1978). The study of outliers: Purpose and model. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series C (Applied Statistics), 27, 242–250.
2.
BensoussanM.LauferB. (1984). Lexical guessing in context in EFL reading comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading, 7, 15–32.
3.
BentlerP.M.ChouC.-P. (1987). Practical issues in structural modeling. Sociological Methods and Research, 16, 78–117.
4.
CatalánR.M.J. (2003). Sex differences in L2 vocabulary learning strategies. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13, 54–77.
5.
ChenY. (2012). Dictionary use and vocabulary learning in the context of reading. International Journal of Lexicography, 25, 216–247.
6.
de JongN.H.SteinelM.P.FlorijnA.F.SchoonenR.HulstijnJ.H. (2012). Facets of speaking proficiency. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34, 5–34.
7.
de BotK.ParibakhtT.S.WescheM.B. (1997). Toward a lexical processing model for the study of second language vocabulary acquisition: Evidence from ESL reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 309–329.
8.
ElgortI.CandryS.BoutorwickT.J.EyckmansJ.BrysbaertM. (2018). Contextual word learning with form-focused and meaning-focused elaboration. Applied Linguistics, 39, 646–667.
9.
FanM.Y. (2003). Frequency of use, perceived usefulness, and actual usefulness of second language vocabulary strategies: A study of Hong Kong learners. The Modern Language Journal, 87, 222–241.
10.
FanN. (2020). Strategy use in second language vocabulary learning and its relationships with the breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge: A structural equation modeling study. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 752.
11.
FitzpatrickT. (2007). Productive vocabulary tests and the search for concurrent validity. In DallerH.MiltonJ.Treffers-DallerJ. (Eds.), Modelling and assessing vocabulary knowledge (pp. 116–132). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
12.
FitzpatrickT.ClentonJ. (2010). The challenge of validation: Assessing the performance of a test of productive vocabulary. Language Testing, 27, 537–554.
13.
FitzpatrickT.ClentonJ. (2017). Making sense of learner performance on tests of productive vocabulary knowledge. TESOL Quarterly, 51, 844–867.
14.
FitzpatrickT.MearaP. (2004). Exploring the validity of a test of productive vocabulary. Vigo International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1, 55–74.
15.
FraserC.A. (1999). Lexical processing strategy use and vocabulary learning through reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 225–241.
16.
González-FernándezB.SchmittN. (2020). Word knowledge: Exploring the relationships and order of acquisition of vocabulary knowledge components. Applied Linguistics, 41, 481–505.
17.
GuP.Y. (2003). Fine brush and freehand: The vocabulary-learning art of two successful Chinese EFL learners. TESOL Quarterly, 37, 73–104.
18.
GuP.Y. (2020). Strategies for learning vocabulary. In WebbS. (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of vocabulary studies (pp. 271–287). Routledge.
19.
GuP.Y.JohnsonR.K. (1996). Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning outcomes. Language Learning, 46, 643–679.
20.
HamadaM. (2009). Development of L2 word–meaning inference while reading. System, 37, 447–460.
21.
HamadaM. (2014). The role of morphological and contextual information in L2 lexical inference. The Modern Language Journal, 98, 992–1005.
22.
HayesA.F.RockwoodN.J. (2017). Regression-based statistical mediation and moderation analysis in clinical research: Observations, recommendations, and implementation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 98, 39–57.
23.
HillM.LauferB. (2003). Type of task, time-on-task and electronic dictionaries in incidental vocabulary acquisition. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 41, 87–106.
24.
HulstijnJ.H.HollanderM.GreidanusT. (1996). Incidental vocabulary learning by advanced foreign language students: The influence of marginal glosses, dictionary use, and reoccurrence of unknown words. The Modern Language Journal, 80, 327–339.
25.
JACET. (2016). The new JACET list of 8000 basic words. Kirihara Shoten.
26.
JiangN. (2000). Lexical representation and development in a second language. Applied Linguistics, 21, 47–77.
27.
JinZ.WebbS. (2021). Does writing words in notes contribute to vocabulary learning?Language Teaching Research. Epub ahead of print 14December2021. DOI: 10.1177/13621688211062184.
28.
KlineR.B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. 4th edition.The Guilford Press.
29.
KnightS. (1994). Dictionary use while reading: The effects on comprehension and vocabulary acquisition for students of different verbal abilities. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 285–299.
30.
Kojic-SaboI.LightbownP.M. (1999). Students’ approaches to vocabulary learning and their relationship to success. The Modern Language Journal, 83, 176–192.
31.
Larson-HallJ. (2010). A guide to doing statistics in second language research using SPSS. Routledge.
32.
LauferB. (1989). What percentage of lexis is essential for comprehension. In LaurenC.NordmanM.Special language: From human thinking to thinking machines (pp. 316–323). Multilingual Matters.
33.
LauferB.GoldsteinZ. (2004). Testing vocabulary knowledge: Size, strength, and computer adaptiveness. Language Learning, 54, 399–436.
34.
LauferB.HillM. (2000). What lexical information do L2 learners select in a CALL dictionary and how does It affect word retention?Language Learning and Technology, 3, 58–76.
35.
LauferB.HulstijnJ. (2001). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a second language: The construct of task-induced involvement. Applied Linguistics, 22, 1–26.
36.
LauferB.NationI.S.P. (1999). A vocabulary-size test of controlled productive ability. Language Testing, 16, 33–51.
37.
LiuT.-C.FanM.H.-M.PaasF. (2014). Effects of digital dictionary format on incidental acquisition of spelling knowledge and cognitive load during second language learning: Click-on vs. key-in dictionaries. Computers and Education, 70, 9–20.
38.
LuppescuS.DayR.R. (1993). Reading, dictionaries, and vocabulary learning. Language Learning, 43, 263–279.
39.
MaJ.H.CheonH.J. (2018). An experimental study of dictionary use on vocabulary learning and reading comprehension in different task conditions. International Journal of Lexicography, 31, 29–52.
40.
MaQ. (2015). A process-focused learning model for L2 vocabulary acquisition: Construction, implementation and validation. ITL – International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 166, 127–162.
41.
MacKinnonD.P.FairchildA.J.FritzM.S. (2007). Mediation analysis. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 593–614.
42.
MearaP. (1992). EFL vocabulary tests. Unpublished manuscript, Center for Applied Language Studies, University College, Swansea, UK.
43.
MearaP.FitzpatrickT. (2000). Lex30: An improved method of assessing productive vocabulary in an L2. System, 28, 19–30.
44.
MizumotoA.TakeuchiO. (2009). Examining the effectiveness of explicit instruction of vocabulary learning strategies with Japanese EFL university students. Language Teaching Research, 13, 425–449.
NagyW.E.HermanP.A.AndersonR.C. (1985). Learning words from context. Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 233–253.
47.
NassajiH. (2003). L2 vocabulary learning from context: Strategies, knowledge sources, and their relationship with success in L2 lexical inferencing. TESOL Quarterly, 37, 645–670.
48.
NassajiH. (2006). The relationship between depth of vocabulary knowledge and L2 learners’ lexical inferencing strategy use and success. The Modern Language Journal, 90, 387–401.
49.
NationI.S.P. (2006). How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening?Canadian Modern Language Review, 63, 59–82.
50.
NationI.S.P. (2008). Teaching vocabulary: Strategies and techniques. Heinle Cengage Learning.
51.
NationI.S.P. (2013). Learning vocabulary in another language. 2nd edition.Cambridge University Press.
52.
PhakitiA. (2018). Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling. In PhakitiA.De CostaP.PlonskyL.StarfieldS. (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of applied linguistics research methodology (pp. 459–500). Palgrave Macmillan.
53.
SchmittN. (1997). Vocabulary learning strategies. In SchmittN.McCarthyM.Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp. 199–227). Cambridge University Press.
54.
SchmittN. (2019). Understanding vocabulary acquisition, instruction, and assessment: A research agenda. Language Teaching, 52, 261–274.
55.
SchmittN.SchmittD. (2020). Vocabulary in language teaching. 2nd edition.Cambridge University Press.
56.
SchreiberJ.B.NoraA.StageF.K.BarlowE.A.KingJ. (2006). Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. The Journal of Educational Research, 99, 323–338.
57.
SternbergR.J. (1987). Most vocabulary is learned from context. In McKeownM.G.CurtisM.E. (Eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 89–105). Lawrence Erlbaum.
58.
SuzukiS.KormosJ. (2022). The multidimensionality of second language oral fluency: Interfacing cognitive fluency and utterance fluency. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. Epub ahead of print 8March2022. DOI: 10.1017/S0272263121000899.
59.
SwanbornM.S.L.de GlopperK. (1999). Incidental word learning while reading: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 69, 261–285.
60.
TsengW.-T.DörnyeiZ.SchmittN. (2006). A new approach to assessing strategic learning: The case of self-regulation in vocabulary acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 27, 78–102.
61.
UchiharaT. (2022). Is it possible to measure word-level comprehensibility and accentedness as independent constructs of pronunciation knowledge?Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, 1, 100011.
62.
UchiharaT.SaitoK. (2019). Exploring the relationship between productive vocabulary knowledge and second language oral ability. The Language Learning Journal, 47, 64–75.
63.
UchiharaT.SaitoK.ClentonJ. (2021). Re-examining the relationship between productive vocabulary and second language oral ability. In ClentonJ.BoothP. (Eds.), Vocabulary and the four skills: Pedagogy, practice, and implications for teaching vocabulary (pp. 146–165). Routledge.
64.
UchiharaT.WebbS.YanagisawaA. (2018). The effectiveness of incidental vocabulary learning: A meta-analysis. European Second Language Association (EuroSLA), Münster.
65.
UchiharaT.WebbS.YanagisawaA. (2019). The effects of repetition on incidental vocabulary learning: A meta-analysis of correlational studies. Language Learning, 69, 559–599.
66.
WaltersJ. (2006). Methods of teaching inferring meaning from context. RELC Journal, 37, 176–190.
67.
WaltersJ. (2012). Aspects of validity of a test of productive vocabulary: Lex30. Language Assessment Quarterly, 9, 172–185.
68.
WangK.-H. (Isobel). (2015). The use of dialogic strategy clusters for vocabulary learning by Chinese students in the UK. System, 51, 51–64.
69.
WebbS. (2008a). Receptive and productive vocabulary sizes of L2 learners. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30, 79–95.
70.
WebbS. (2008b). The effects of context on incidental vocabulary learning. Reading in a Foreign Language, 20, 232–245.
71.
WebbS.NationI.S.P. (2017). How vocabulary is learned. Oxford University Press.
72.
WebbS.PiaseckiA. (2018). Re-examining the effects of word writing on vocabulary learning. ITL – International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 169, 72–94.
73.
WebbS.SasaoY.OliverB. (2017). The updated Vocabulary Levels Test: Developing and validating two new forms of the VLT. ITL – International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 168, 33–69.
74.
WebbS.YanagisawaA.UchiharaT. (2020). How effective are intentional vocabulary-learning activities? A meta-analysis. The Modern Language Journal, 104, 715–738.
75.
WeiZ. (2015). Does teaching mnemonics for vocabulary learning make a difference? Putting the keyword method and the word part technique to the test. Language Teaching Research, 19, 43–69.
76.
YanagisawaA.WebbS. (2021). To what extent does the involvement load hypothesis predict incidental L2 vocabulary learning? A meta-analysis. Language Learning, 71, 487–536.
77.
ZhangS.XuH.ZhangX. (2021). The effects of dictionary use on second language vocabulary acquisition: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Lexicography, 34, 1–38.
78.
ZhangX.LuX. (2015). The relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge. The Modern Language Journal, 99, 740–753.
79.
ZouD. (2016). Comparing dictionary-induced vocabulary learning and inferencing in the context of reading. Lexikos, 26, 372–390.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
