Older residents (N 5 1972) in California were investigated prospectively for association of volunteering service to others and all-cause mortality. Potential confounding factors were studied: demographics, health status, physical functioning, health habits, social support, religious involvement, and emotional states. Possible interaction effects of volunteering with religious involvement and social support were also explored. Results showed that 31 percent (n 5 630) of respondents volunteered, about half (n5289) for more than one organization. High volunteers ([.greaterequal]2 organizations) had 63 percent lower mortality than nonvolunteers (age and sex-adjusted) with relative hazard (RH) 5 0.37, confidence interval (CI) 5 0.24, 0.58. Multivariate adjustment moderately reduced difference to 44 percent (RH 5 0.56, CI 5 0.35, 0.89), mostly due to physical functioning, health habits, and social support. Unexpectedly, volunteering was slightly more protective for those with high religious involvement and perceived social support. After multivariate adjustment, any level of volunteering reduced mortality by 60 percent among weekly attenders at religious services (RH 5 0.40; CI 5 0.21,0.74). Lower mortality rates for community service volunteers were only partly explained by health habits, physical functioning, religious attendance, and social support.
Allen, J. P., Philliber, S., Herrling, S., & Kuperminc, G. P. (1997). Preventing teen pregnancy and academic failure: Experimental evaluation of a developmentally based approach. Child Development, 68, 729–742.
2.
Allport, G. W. (1966). The religious context of prejudice. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 5, 448–451.
3.
Anderson, J. C., & Moore, L. (1978). The motivation to volunteer. Journal of Voluntary Action Research, 7, 120–125.
4.
Annesi, I., Moreau, T., & Lellouch, J. (1989). Efficiency of the logistic regression and Cox proportional hazards models in longitudinal studies. Statistics in Medicine, 8, 1515–1521.
5.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman.
6.
Batson, C. D. (1991). The altruism question: Toward a social-psychological answer. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
7.
Benson, H., & Stark, M. (1997). Timeless healing: The power and biology of belief. New York: Fireside.
8.
Berkman, L. F., Berkman, C. S., Kasl, S., Freeman, D. H., Jr., Leo, L., Ostfeld, A. M., Cornoni-Huntley, J., & Brody, J. A. (1986). Depressive symptoms in relation to physical health and functioning in the elderly. American Journal of Epidemiology, 124, 372–388.
9.
Berkman, L. F., & Syme, S. L. (1979). Social networks, host resistance, and mortality: a nine-year follow-up study of Alameda County residents. American Journal of Epidemiology, 109, 186–204.
10.
Bohannan, P. (1963). Social anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
11.
Bracke, P. E., & Thoresen, C. E. (1996). Reducing type A behavior patterns: A structured-group approach. In R. Allan & S. S. Scheidt (Eds.), Heart & mind: The practice of cardiac psychology (pp. 255–290). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
12.
Carlo, G., Eisenberg, N., Troyer, D., Switzer, G., & Speer, A. L. (1991). The altruistic personality: In what contexts is it apparent?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 450–458.
13.
Clary, E. G., & Miller, J. (1986). Socialization and situational influences on sustained altruism. Child Development, 57, 1358–1369.
14.
Clary, E. G., Snyder, M., Ridge, R. D., Copeland, J., Stukas, A. A., Haugen, J., & Miene, P. (1998). Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: A functional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1516–1530.
15.
Coreil, J., Levin, J. S., & Jaco, E. G. (1985). Life style—An emergent concept in the sociomedical sciences. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 9, 423–437.
16.
Cousins, N. (1979). Anatomy of an illness as perceived by the patient. New York: W. W. Norton.
17.
Cox, D. R., & Oakes, D. (1984). Analysis of survival data. New York: Chapman & Hall.
18.
Criqui, M. H. (1979). Response bias and risk ratios in epidemiologic studies. American Journal of Epidemiology, 109, 394–399.
19.
Curtis, J. E., Grabb, E. G., & Baer, D. E. (1992). Voluntary association membership in fifteen countries: A comparative analysis. American Sociological Review, 57, 139–152.
20.
Dienstbier, R. A. (1989). Arousal and physiological toughness: Implications for mental and physical health. Psychological Review, 96, 84–100.
21.
Easwaran, E. (1991). Meditation: A simple eight point program for translating spiritual ideals into daily life (2nd ed.). Tomales, CA: Nilgiri.
22.
Fleiss, J. L. (1981). Statistical methods for rates and proportions (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.
23.
Frank, J. (1975). The faith that heals. Johns Hopkins Medical Journal, 137, 127–131.
24.
Ganguli, M., Lytle, M. E., Reynolds, M. D., & Dodge, H. H. (1998). Random versus volunteer selection for a community-based study. Journal of Gerontology, 53A, M39–M46.
25.
Gfeller, J. D., & Horn, G. J. (1996). The east Boston memory test: A clinical screening measure for memory impairment in the elderly. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 52, 191–196.
26.
Growald, E. R., & Luks, A. (1988). Beyond self. American Health, 51–53.
27.
Harootyan, R. A., & Vorek, R. E. (1994). Volunteering, helping, and gift giving in families and communities. In R. A. H. VernL. Bengtson (Ed.), Intergenerational linkages: Hidden connections in American society (pp. 77–111). New York: Springer.
28.
Hodgkinson, V. A., & Weitzman, M. S. (1996). Giving and volunteering in the United States, 1996. Washington, DC: Independent Sector.
29.
House, J. S., Landis, K. R., & Umberson, D. (1988). Social relationships and health. Science, 241, 540–545.
30.
House, J. S., Robbins, C., & Metzner, H. L. (1982). The association of social relationships and activities with mortality: prospective evidence from the Tecumseh Community Health Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 116, 123–140.
31.
Kaplan, G., Strawbridge, W., Cohen, R., & Hungerford, L. (1996). Natural history of leisure-time physical activity and its correlates: Associations with mortality from all causes and cardiovascular disease over 28 years. American Journal of Epidemiology, 144, 793–797.
32.
Kark, J. D., Carmel, S., Sinnreich, R., Goldberger, N., & Friedlander, Y. (1996a) Psychosocial factors among members of religious and secular kibbutzim. Israel Journal of Medical Sciences, 3224, 185–194.
33.
Kark, J. D., Shemi, G., Friedlander, Y., Martin, O., Manor, O., & Blondheim, S. H. (1996b). Does religious observance promote health? Mortality in secular vs religious kibbutzim in Israel. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 341–346.
34.
Kawachi, I., Sparrow, D., Spiro, A. 3rd, Vokonas, P., & Weiss, S. T. (1996). A prospective study of anger and coronary heart disease. The normative aging study. Circulation, 94, 2090–2095.
35.
Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., & Glaser, R. (1995). Psychoneuroimmunology and health consequences: Data and shared mechanisms. Psychosomatic Medicine, 57, 269–274.
36.
Krause, N. (1995). Assessing stress-buffering effects: A cautionary note. Psychology and Aging, 10, 518–526.
37.
Krause, N. (1997). Religion, aging, and health: Current status and future prospects. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 52, S291–S293.
38.
Langer, R. D., Criqui, M. H., & Reed, D. M. (1992). Lipoproteins and blood pressure as biological pathways for effect of moderate alcohol consumption on coronary heart disease. Circulation, 85, 910–915.
39.
Levin, J. S. (1994). Religion and health: Is there an association, is it valid, and is it causal?Social Science and Medicine, 38, 1475–1482.
40.
Lorig, K., & Holman, H. (1993). Arthritis self-management studies: A twelve-year review. Health Education Quarterly, 20, 17–28.
41.
Losonczy, K. G., Harris, T. B., Cornoni-Huntley, J., Simonsick, E. M., Wallace, R. B., Cook, N. R., Ostfeld, A. M., & Blazer, D. G. (1995). Does weight loss from middle age to old age explain the inverse weight mortality relation in old age?American Journal of Epidemiology, 141, 312–321.
42.
Matthews, D. A., McCullough, M. E., Larson, D. B., Koenig, H. G., Swyers, J. P., & Milano, M. G. (1998). Religious commitment and health status: A review of the research and implications for family medicine. Archives of Family Medicine, 7, 118–124.
43.
Matthews, G., & Wells, A. (1996). Attentional processes, dysfunctional coping, and clinical intervention. In N. S. E. Moshe Zeidner (Ed.), Handbook of coping: Theory, research, applications (pp. 573–601). New York: Wiley.
44.
McCullough, M. E., Larson, D. B., Hoyt, W. T., Koenig, H. G., & Thoresen, C. (1998). A meta-analytic review of research on religious involvement and mortality. (Unpublished manuscript.)
45.
McCullough, M. E., & Worthington, E. L. (1994). Encouraging clients to forgive people who have hurt them: Review, critique, and research prospectus. Journal of Psychology & Theology, 22, 3–20.
46.
McFadden, S. H. (1996). Religion, spirituality, and aging. In James E. Birren, Klaus Warner Schaie, Ronald P. Abeles, Margaret Gatz, & Timothy A. Salthouse (Eds.) Handbook of the psychology of aging (4th ed.) (pp. 162–177). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
47.
McMahon, K., McEnhill, M., & Youngquist, R. (1996). Utilizing volunteer research assistants in epidemiologic studies. Journal of Aging and Social Policy, 8, 39–58.
48.
Midlarsky, E. (1991). Helping as coping. In S. C. Margaret (Ed.), Prosocial behavior. Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 12, pp. 238–264). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
49.
Midlarsky, E., & Kahana, E. (1994a). Altruism in later life (Vol. 196). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
50.
Midlarsky, E., & Kahana, E. (1994b). Helping and volunteering in late life: The results of an experimental intervention. In Altruism in Later Life (pp. 189–220). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
51.
Midlarsky, E., & Kahana, E. (1994c). Predictors of helping and well-being in older adults: A cross-sectional survey research project. In Altruism in Later Life (pp. 126–188). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
52.
Miller, T. Q., Smith, T. W., Turner, C. W., Guijarro, M. L., & Hallet, A. J. (1996). A meta-analytic review of research on hostility and physical health. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 322–348.
53.
Miller, W. E., & Thoresen, C. E. (in press). Spirituality and health. In W. E. Miller (Ed.) Integrating spirituality into treatment: Resources for practitioners. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
54.
Moore, C. W., & Allen, J. P. (1996). The effects of volunteering on the young volunteer. Journal of Primary Prevention, 17, 231–258.
55.
Okun, M. A. (1993). Predictors of volunteer status in a retirement community. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 36, 57–74.
56.
Oman, D., & Reed, D. (1998). Religion and mortality among the community-dwelling elderly. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 1469–1475.
57.
Pargament, K. I. (1997). The psychology of religion and coping: Theory, research, practice. New York: Guilford.
58.
Prager, E. (1995). The older volunteer as research colleague: Toward ‘generative participation’ for older adults. Educational Gerontology, 21, 209–218.
59.
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.
60.
Reed, D., Satariano, W. A., Gildengorin, G., McMahon, K., Fleshman, R., & Schneider, E. (1995). Health and functioning among the elderly of Marin County, California: A glimpse of the future. Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences, 50, M61–M69.
61.
Riessman, F. (1965). The ‘helper’ therapy principle. Social Work, 10, 27–32.
62.
Rosenberg, M. (1973). The logical status of suppressor variables. Public Opinion Quarterly, 37, 359–372.
63.
Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (1975). The volunteer subject. New York: Wiley.
64.
Rossiter-Fornoff, J. E., Wolf, S. L., Wolfson, L. I., & Buchner, D. M. (1995). A cross-sectional validation study of the FICSIT common data base static balance measures. Frailty and injuries: Cooperative studies of intervention techniques. Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences, 50, M291–M297.
65.
Rowe, J. W., & Kahn, R. L. (1998). Successful aging. New York: Pantheon.
66.
Scherwitz, L., Graham, L. E. D., Grandits, G., Buehler, J., & Billings, J. (1986). Self-involvement and coronary heart disease incidence in the multiple risk factor intervention trial. Psychosomatic Medicine, 48, 187–199.
67.
Shedler, J., Mayman, M., & Manis, M. (1993). The illusion of mental health. American Psychologist, 48, 1117–1131.
68.
Sinha, D. (1984). Community as target: A new perspective to research on prosocial behavior. In E. Staub, D. Bar-Tal, J. Karylowski, & J. Reykowski (Eds.), Development and maintenance of prosocial behavior: international perspectives on positive morality (pp. 445–455). New York: Plenum.
69.
Smith, H. (1991). The world's religions: Our great wisdom traditions. San Francisco: Harper.
70.
Sokolowski, S. W. (1996). Show me the way to the next worthy deed: Towards a microstructural theory of volunteering and giving. Voluntas, 7, 259–278.
71.
Su, Y. P., & Ferraro, K. F. (1997). Social relations and health assessments among older people: Do the effects of integration and social contributions vary cross-culturally?Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 52, S27–S36.
72.
Sullivan, G. B., & Sullivan, M. J. (1997). Promoting wellness in cardiac rehabilitation: Exploring the role of altruism. Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing, 11, 43–52.
73.
Szendre, E. N., & Jose, P. E. (1996). Telephone support by elderly volunteers to inner-city children. Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 87–96.
74.
Thoresen, C. E. (1998). Spirituality, health and science: The coming revival? In S. Roth-Roemer, S. R. Kurpius, & C. Carmin (Eds.), The emerging role of counseling psychology in health care (pp. 409–431). New York: Norton.
75.
Thoresen, C. E., & Powell, L. H. (1992). Type A behavior pattern: New perspectives on theory, assessment, and intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 595–604.
76.
Waterman, A. S. (1997). Service-learning: Applications from the research. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
77.
White, L., Tursky, B., & Schwartz, G. E. (Eds.). (1985). Placebo: Theory, research, and mechanisms. New York: Guilford.
78.
Wilson, J., & Musick, M. (1997a). Who cares? Toward an integrated theory of volunteer work. American Sociological Review, 62, 694–713.
79.
Wilson, J., & Musick, M. A. (1997b). Work and volunteering: The long arm of the job. Social Forces, 76, 251–272.
80.
Wuthnow, R., & Hodgkinson, V. A. (Eds.). (1990). Faith and philanthropy in America: Exploring the role of religion in America's voluntary sector. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
81.
Yach, D., & Bettcher, D. (1998). The globalization of public health, I: Threats and opportunities. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 735–738; discussion, 742–744.
82.
Young, F. W., & Glasgow, N. (1998). Voluntary social participation & health. Research on Aging, 20, 339–362.
