This study examined the impact of a stressful death/divorce on psychological and immune outcomes in people with HIV. People with HIV with stressful death/divorce were examined from before the event to up to 12 months later (n = 45); controls were assessed at similar intervals (n = 112). Stressful deaths/divorces were associated with increased viral load and anxiety over time (ps ≤ .014), but not CD4+ or depression. Increased use of religious coping after the stressful death/divorce was associated with slower increases in viral load (p = .010). These data suggest people with HIV should consider the potentially elevated risk of transmission after such events and seek appropriate monitoring and care.
AntoniMHCruessDGCruessS, et al. (2000) Cognitive–behavioral stress management intervention effects on anxiety, 24-hr urinary norepinephrine output, and T-cytotoxic/suppressor cells over time among symptomatic HIV-infected gay men. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology68: 31–45.
2.
AntoniMHIronsonGSchneidermanN (2007) Stress Management for Persons with HIV Infection. New York: Oxford University Press.
3.
AntoniMHLechnerSCKaziA, et al. (2006) How stress management improves quality of life after treatment for breast cancer. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology74: 1143–1152.
4.
BeckATWardCHMendelsonM, et al. (1961) An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry4: 561–571.
5.
BerntsenKNKravdalO (2012) The relationship between mortality and time since divorce, widowhood or remarriage in Norway. Social Science & Medicine75: 2267–2274.
6.
BreslauJMillerEJinR, et al. (2011) A multinational study of mental disorders, marriage, and divorce. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica124: 474–486.
7.
BruceMLKimKLeafPJ, et al. (1990) Depressive episodes and dysphoria resulting from conjugal bereavement in a prospective community sample. The American Journal of Psychiatry147(5): 608–611.
8.
CarverCS (1997) You want to measure coping but your protocol’s too long: Consider the brief cope. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine4: 92–100.
9.
ChesneyMAIckovicsJChambersD, et al. (2000) Self-reported adherence to antiretroviral medications among participants in HIV clinical trials: The AACTG adherence instruments. AIDS Care12: 255–266.
10.
ChidaYVedharaK (2009) Adverse psychosocial factors predict poorer prognosis in HIV disease: A meta-analytic review of prospective investigations. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity23: 434–445.
11.
ChidaYHamerMWardleJ, et al. (2008) Do stress-related psychosocial factors contribute to cancer incidence and survival?Nature Clinical Practice. Oncology5: 466–475.
12.
DuijtsSFAZeegersMBorneBV (2003) The association between stressful life events and breast cancer risk: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Cancer107: 1023–1029.
13.
FisherMPaoDBrownAE, et al. (2010) Determinants of HIV-1 transmission in men who have sex with men: A combined clinical, epidemiological and phylogenetic approach. AIDS24: 1739–1747.
14.
Frasure-SmithNLespéranceFGravelG, et al. (2000) Social support, depression, and mortality during the first year after myocardial infarction. Circulation101: 1919–1924.
15.
Holt-LunstadJSmithTBLaytonJB (2010) Social relationships and mortality risk: A meta-analytic review. PLoS Medicine7: e1000316.
16.
IronsonGHaywardHS (2008) Do positive psychosocial factors predict disease progression in HIV-1? A review of the evidence. Psychosomatic Medicine70: 546–554.
17.
IronsonGKremerH (2011) Coping, spirituality, and health in HIV. In: FolkmanS (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Stress, Health, and Coping.Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 289–318.
18.
IronsonGO’CleirighCFletcherMA, et al. (2005) Psychosocial factors predict CD4 and viral load change in men and women with human immunodeficiency virus in the era of highly active antiretroviral treatment. Psychosomatic Medicine67: 1013–1021.
19.
KaldjianLCJekelJFFriedlandG (1998) End-of-life decisions in HIV-positive patients: The role of spiritual beliefs. AIDS12: 103–107.
20.
KemenyMEDeanL (1995) Effects of AIDS-related bereavement on HIV progression among New York City gay men. AIDS Education and Prevention7(5 Suppl.): 36–47.
21.
KoenigHG (2008) Medicine, Religion, and Health: Where Science and Spirituality Meet. West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Foundation Press.
22.
KolvaERosenfeldBPessinH, et al. (2011) Anxiety in terminally ill cancer patients. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management42: 691–701.
23.
KornerupHOslerMBoysenG, et al. (2010) Major life events increase the risk of stroke but not of myocardial infarction: Results from the Copenhagen City Heart Study. European Journal of Cardiovascular Prevention and Rehabilitation17: 113–118.
24.
KremerHIronsonG (2009) Everything changed: Spiritual transformation in people with HIV. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine39: 243–262.
25.
LesermanJPenceBWhettenK, et al. (2007) Relation of lifetime trauma and depressive symptoms to mortality in HIV. The American Journal of Psychiatry164: 1707–1713.
26.
LesermanJPetittoJMGuH, et al. (2002) Progression to AIDS, a clinical AIDS condition and mortality: Psychosocial and physiological predictors. Psychological Medicine32: 1059–1073.
27.
LorenzKAHaysRDShapiroMF, et al. (2005) Religiousness and spirituality among HIV-infected Americans. Journal of Palliative Medicine8: 774–781.
28.
MitchellPHPowellLBlumenthalJ, et al. (2003) A short social support measure for patients recovering from myocardial infarction: The ENRICHD social support inventory. Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation23: 398–403.
29.
MitsonisCIPotagasCZervasI, et al. (2009) The effects of stressful life events on the course of multiple sclerosis: A review. International Journal of Neuroscience119: 315–335.
30.
MoonJRKondoNGlymourMM, et al. (2011) Widowhood and mortality: A meta-analysis. PLoS One6: e23465.
31.
MugaveroMJRaperJLReifS, et al. (2009) Overload: Impact of incident stressful events on antiretroviral medication adherence and virologic failure in a longitudinal, multisite human immunodeficiency virus cohort study. Psychosomatic Medicine71: 920–926.
32.
O’DonnellJKGaynesBNColeSR, et al. (2017) Stressful and traumatic life events as disruptors to antiretroviral therapy adherence. AIDS Care28: 1–8.
33.
OnrustSACuijpersP (2006) Mood and anxiety disorders in widowhood: A systematic review. Aging & Mental Health10: 327–334.
34.
PadgettEAKusnerKGPargamentKI (2015) Integrating religion and spirituality into treatment. In: LynnSJO’DonohueWTLilienfeldSO (eds) Health, Happiness, and Well-being: Better Living through Psychological Science. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, pp. 272–295.
35.
PargamentKIMcCarthySShahP, et al. (2004) Religion and HIV: A review of the literature and clinical implications. Southern Medical Journal97: 1201–1210.
36.
PargamentKISmithBBrantC (1995) Religious and nonreligious coping methods with the 1993 Midwest flood. In: Proceedings of the annual meeting of the society for the scientific study of religion, St. Louis, MO, November1995.
37.
ParkCL (2005) Religion as a meaning-making framework in coping with life stress. Journal of Social Issues61: 707–729.
38.
PenceBWRaperJLReifS, et al. (2010) Incident stressful and traumatic life events and human immunodeficiency virus sexual transmission risk behaviors in a longitudinal, multisite cohort study. Psychosomatic Medicine72: 720–726.
39.
PotagasCMitsonisCWatierL, et al. (2008) Influence of anxiety and reported stressful life events on relapses in multiple sclerosis: A prospective study. Multiple Sclerosis14: 1262–1268.
40.
PyykkönenA-JRäikkönenKTuomiT, et al. (2010) Stressful life events and the metabolic syndrome the prevalence, prediction and prevention of diabetes (PPP)-Botnia study. Diabetes Care33: 378–384.
41.
RichardsAAcreeMFolkmanS (1999) Spiritual aspects of loss among partners of men with AIDS: Postbereavement follow-up. Death Studies23: 105–127.
42.
RoelfsDJShorEKalishR, et al. (2011) The rising relative risk of mortality for singles: Meta-analysis and meta-regression. American Journal of Epidemiology174: 379–389.
43.
SarasonIGJohnsonJHSiegelJM (1978) Assessing the impact of life changes: Development of the life experiences survey. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology46: 932–946.
44.
SbarraDACoanJA (2017) Divorce and health: Good data in need of better theory. Current Opinion in Psychology13: 91–95.
45.
SegerstromSCMillerGE (2004) Psychological stress and the human immune system: A meta-analytic study of 30 years of inquiry. Psychological Bulletin130: 601–630.
46.
ShorERoelfsDJBugyiP, et al. (2012) Meta-analysis of marital dissolution and mortality: Reevaluating the intersection of gender and age. Social Science & Medicine75: 46–59.
47.
SingerJDWillettJB (2003) Doing data analysis with the multilevel model for change. In: SingerJDWillettJB (eds) Applied Longitudinal Data Analysis: Modeling Change and Event Occurrence.Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 75–137.
48.
SpielbergerCDGorsuchRLLusheneRE (1970) Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory. Available at: http://hdl.handle.net/10477/2895
49.
StroebeMS (2011) Coping with bereavement. In: StroebeMS (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Stress, Health, and Coping. New York: Oxford university Press, pp. 148–172.
50.
StroebeWZechEStroebeMS, et al. (2005) Does social support help in bereavement?Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology24: 1030–1050.
51.
TarakeshwarNHansenNKochmanA, et al. (2005a) Gender, ethnicity and spiritual coping among bereaved HIV-positive individuals. Mental Health, Religion & Culture8: 109–125.
52.
TarakeshwarNPearceMJSikkemaKJ (2005b) Development and implementation of a spiritual coping group intervention for adults living with HIV/AIDS: A pilot study. Mental Health, Religion & Culture8: 179–190.
53.
TrevinoKMPargamentKICottonS, et al. (2010) Religious coping and physiological, psychological, social, and spiritual outcomes in patients with HIV/AIDS: Cross-sectional and longitudinal findings. AIDS and Behavior14: 379–389.
54.
WortmannJHParkCL (2008) Religion and spirituality in adjustment following bereavement: An integrative review. Death Studies32: 703–736.
