This study investigated COVID-19 preventive behaviors in young adults, exploring the predictive roles of health locus of control and pandemic fear. A sample of 188 Italian young adults (Mage = 22.76, SDage= 1.95; 85% girls) completed an anonymous online survey assessing preventive behaviors, health locus of control styles (i.e. internal, chance, powerful others), and two dimensions of pandemic fear. Fear for COVID-19 consequences—but not general fear for contagion—significantly predicted prevention behaviors, and it also moderated the relationships between each health locus of control style and preventive behaviors. Our findings have relevant implications for research and social policies.
AbbasiJ (2020) Younger adults caught in COVID-19 crosshairs as demographics shift. The Journal of the American Medical Association324(21): 2141–2143.
2.
AdolphsR (2013) The biology of fear. Current Biology23(2): R79–R93.
3.
AhorsuDKLinCYImaniV, et al (2020) The fear of COVID-19 scale: Development and initial validation. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction67(1): 46-53.
Amit AharonANehamaHRishponS, et al (2018) A path analysis model suggesting the association between health locus of control and compliance with childhood vaccinations. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics14(7): 1618–1625.
6.
BankerSParkJ (2020) Evaluating prosocial COVID-19 messaging frames: Evidence from a field study on Facebook. Judgment and Decision Making15(6): 1037–1043.
7.
BarariSCariaSDavolaA, et al (2020) Evaluating COVID-19 public health messaging in Italy: Self-reported compliance and growing mental health concerns. Online preprint available on MedRxiv. DOI: 10.1101/2020.03.27.20042820
8.
BergMBLinL (2020) Prevalence and predictors of early COVID-19 behavioral intentions in the United States. Translational Behavioral Medicine10(4): 843–849.
9.
BishAMichieS (2010) Demographic and attitudinal determinants of protective behaviours during a pandemic: A review. British Journal of Health Psychology15(Pt 4): 797–824.
10.
BoYGuoCLinC, et al (2021) Effectiveness of non-pharmaceutical interventions on COVID-19 transmission in 190 countries from 23 January to 13 April 2020. International Journal of Infectious Diseases102: 247–253.
11.
BreakwellGMFinoEJaspalR (2021) COVID-19 preventive behaviours in White British and Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic (BAME) people in the UK. Journal of Health Psychology27(6): 1301-1317.
12.
BroodrykTRobinsonK (2021) Locking down behavioural compliance: The role of emotion and emotion regulation in breaches of COVID-19 mitigation measures in Aotearoa New Zealand. Journal of Health Psychology27(10): 2330-2343.
13.
BrownRSLees-HaleyPR (1992) Fear of future illness, chemical AIDS, and cancerphobia: A review. Psychological Reports71(1): 187–207.
14.
CarminesE. G.McIverJ. P. (1983). An introduction to the analysis of models with unobserved variables. Political Methodology9: 51–102.
15.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2020) COVID-19 Data Tracker. Demographic trends of COVID-19 cases and deaths in the US reported to CDC. Atalanta, USA. Available at: https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#demographics
16.
ChengCCheungMWLoBC (2016) Relationship of health locus of control with specific health behaviours and global health appraisal: A meta-analysis and effects of moderators. Health Psychology Review10(4): 460–477.
17.
ChristnerNStickerRMSöldnerL, et al (2020) Prevention for oneself or others? Psychological and social factors that explain social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Health Psychology27(6): 1342-1353.
18.
CohenJ (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp.18–74.
19.
CohenJCohenPWestSG, et al (2002) Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, 3rd edn.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
20.
CowlingBNgDIpD, et al (2010) Community psychological and behavioral responses through the first wave of the 2009 influenza A (H1N1) pandemic in Hong Kong. The Journal of Infectious Diseases202: 867–876.
21.
FerrerRKleinWM (2015) Risk perceptions and health behavior. Current Opinion in Psychology5: 85–89.
22.
FitzpatrickKMHarrisCDrawveG (2020) Fear of COVID-19 and the mental health consequences in America. Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy12(S1): S17–S21.
23.
FranzenAWöhnerF (2021) Coronavirus risk perception and compliance with social distancing measures in a sample of young adults: Evidence from Switzerland. PLoS One16(2): e0247447.
24.
GalaCMusiccoFDurbanoF, et al (1995) Italian validation of the multidimensional scale of "Health Locus of Control”. New Trends in Experimental and Clinical Psychiatry11: 79–79.
GraupenspergerSLeeCMLarimerME (2021) Young adults underestimate how well peers adhere to COVID-19 preventive behavioral guidelines. The Journal of Primary Prevention42(3): 309–318.
27.
HarperCASatchellLPFidoD, et al (2021) Functional fear predicts public health compliance in the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction19: 1875–1888.
28.
HayJLMcCaulKDMagnanRE (2006) Does worry about breast cancer predict screening behaviors? A meta-analysis of the prospective evidence. Preventive Medicine42(6): 401–408.
29.
HuLBentlerPM (1999) Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling a Multidisciplinary Journal6(1): 1–55.
30.
ImbrianoGLarsenEMMackinDM, et al (2021) Online survey of the impact of COVID-19 risk and cost estimates on worry and health behavior compliance in young adults. Frontiers in Public Health9: 612725.
31.
ImtiazAKhanNMHossainMA (2021) COVID-19 in Bangladesh: Measuring differences in individual precautionary behaviors among young adults. Journal of Public Health30: 1473–1484.
ItaniOSHollebeekLD (2021) Consumers’ health-locus-of-control and social distancing in pandemic-based e-tailing services. Journal of Services Marketing. Advance online publication. DOI:10.1108/JSM-10-2020-0410
34.
JordanJJYoeliERandDG (2021) Don’t get it or don’t spread it: Comparing self-interested versus prosocial motivations for COVID-19 prevention behaviors. Scientific Reports11(1): 20222.
KaracinCBilgetekinI BBasalF, et al (2020) How does COVID-19 fear and anxiety affect chemotherapy adherence in patients with cancer. Future Oncology16(29): 2283–2293.
37.
KowalskiRMBlackKJ (2021) Protection motivation and the COVID-19 virus. Health Communication36(1): 15–22.
38.
KwokKOLiKKChanHHH, et al (2020) Community responses during early phase of COVID-19 epidemic, Hong Kong. Emerging Infectious Diseases26(7): 1575–1579.
39.
LuoYChengYSuiM (2021) The moderating effects of perceived severity on the generational gap in preventive behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic in the US. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health18(4): 2011.
40.
MahalikJRBiancaMDHarrisMP (2021) Men’s attitudes toward mask-wearing during COVID-19: Understanding the complexities of mask-ulinity. Journal of Health Psychology27(5): 1187-1204.
41.
MercerDADittoBLavoieKL, et al (2018) Health locus of control is associated with physical activity and other health behaviors in cardiac patients. Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation and Prevention38(6): 394–399.
42.
MertensGDuijndamSSmeetsT, et al (2021) The latent and item structure of COVID-19 fear: A comparison of four COVID-19 fear questionnaires using SEM and network analyses. Journal of Anxiety Disorders81: 102415.
43.
MertensGGerritsenLDuijndamS, et al (2020) Fear of the coronavirus (COVID-19): Predictors in an online study conducted in March2020. Journal of Anxiety Disorders74: 102258.
44.
MullerAEHimmelsJPWVan de VeldeS (2021) Instruments to measure fear of COVID-19: A diagnostic systematic review. BMC Medical Research Methodology21(1): 82–14.
45.
NáfrádiLNakamotoKSchulzPJ (2017) Is patient empowerment the key to promote adherence? A systematic review of the relationship between self-efficacy, health locus of control and medication adherence. PLoS One12(10): e0186458.
RayaniMRayaniSNajafi-SharjabadF (2021) COVID-19-related knowledge, risk perception, information seeking, and adherence to preventive behaviors among undergraduate students, southern Iran. Environmental Science and Pollution Research28: 59953–59962.
49.
RogersRW (1975) A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change1. The Journal of Psychology91(1): 93–114.
50.
SchimmentiABillieuxJStarcevicV (2020) The four horsemen of fear: An integrated model of understanding fear experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. Clinical Neuropsychiatry17(2): 41–45.
51.
SloanMMHanerMGrahamA, et al (2021) Pandemic emotions: The extent, correlates, and mental health consequences of fear of COVID-19. Sociological Spectrum41(5): 369–386.
52.
SolymosiRJacksonJPóschK, et al (2021) Functional and dysfunctional fear of COVID-19: A classification scheme. Crime Science10(1): 4–23.
53.
SoraciPFerrariAAbbiatiFA, et al (2020) Validation and psychometric evaluation of the Italian version of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. Advance online publication. DOI:10.1007/s11469-020-00277-1
54.
SteptoeAWardleJ (2001) Locus of control and health behaviour revisited: A multivariate analysis of young adults from 18 countries. British Journal of Psychology92(Pt 4): 659–672.
55.
TabachnickBGFidellLS (2013) Using Multivariate Statistics, 6th edn.Boston, MA: Pearson.
56.
TaginiSBrugneraAFerrucciR, et al (2021) Attachment, personality and locus of control: Psychological determinants of risk perception and preventive behaviors for COVID-19. Frontiers in Psychology12: 634012.
57.
TaylorSPaluszekMMLandryCA, et al (2021) Predictors of distress and coping during pandemic-related self isolation: The relative importance of personality traits and beliefs about personal threat. Personality and Individual Differences176: 110779.
58.
UsherKJacksonDDurkinJ, et al (2020) Pandemic-related behaviours and psychological outcomes; A rapid literature review to explain COVID-19 behaviours. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing29(6): 1018–1034.
59.
WallstonKA (2005) The validity of the multidimensional health locus of control scales. Journal of Health Psychology10(5): 623–631.
60.
WallstonKAWallstonBSDeVellisR (1978) Development of the multidimensional health locus of control (MHLC) scales. Health Education Monographs6(2): 160–170.
YeungNCYLauJTFChoiKC, et al (2017) Population responses during the pandemic phase of the influenza A (H1N1)pdm09 epidemic, Hong Kong, China. Emerging Infectious Diseases23: 813–815.
63.
ZammittiAImbroglieraCRussoA, et al (2021) The psychological impact of coronavirus pandemic restrictions in Italy. The mediating role of the fear of COVID-19 in the relationship between positive and negative affect with positive and negative outcomes. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education11(3): 697–710.
64.
ZhangNKouY (2021) Implicit theories of health, consideration of future consequences, and engagement in health protective behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic in China. Journal of Health Psychology27(6): 1462-1469.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
