Given the increase of depressive symptoms among adolescents, it is essential to investigate familial and temperamental correlates of depressive symptoms such as parental support, marital conflict, and stress. Thus, using a cross-sectional design, the current study examined whether parental support, marital conflict, and stress predicted depressive symptoms. Then, using structural equation modeling, this study tested whether stress mediated the relationships among parental support, marital conflict, and depressive symptoms among African American adolescents while controlling for sex (N = 883). Results suggest that maternal support negatively related to depressive symptoms in contrast to stress and marital conflict. However, paternal support and sex were not statistically associated with depressive symptoms. Mediation results suggest that stress explained the relationships among parental support, marital conflict, and depressive symptoms. Family therapy and depression reduction implications are discussed.
BaerP. E.GarmezyL. B.McLaughlinR. J.PokornyA. D.WernickM. J. (1987). Stress, coping, family conflict, and adolescent alcohol use. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 10(5), 449–466. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00846144
2.
BarreraM.Garrison-JonesC. (1992). Family and peer social support as specific correlates of adolescent depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00927113
3.
BokszczaninA. (2008). Parental support, family conflict, and overprotectiveness: Predicting PTSD symptom levels of adolescents 28 months after a natural disaster. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 21(4), 325–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800801950584
4.
BuehlerC.FranckK. L.CookE. C. (2009). Adolescents’ triangulation in marital conflict and peer relations. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 19(4), 669–689. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00616.x
5.
BuehlerC.WelshD. P. (2009). A process model of adolescents' triangulation into parents’ marital conflict: the role of emotional reactivity. Journal of Family Psychology, 23(2), 167–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014976
6.
CalandriE.GrazianoF.TestaS.CattelinoE., &BegottiT. (2019). Empathy and depression among early adolescents: the moderating role of parental support. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1447. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01447
7.
CarrA. (2009). The effectiveness of family therapy and systemic interventions for child‐focused problems. Journal of Family Therapy, 31(1), 3–45. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6427.2008.00451.x
8.
CarrA. (2014). The evidence base for family therapy and systemic interventions for child‐focused problems. Journal of Family Therapy, 36(2), 107–157. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6427.12032
9.
ChangC. J.OhannessianC. M.EwingE. S. K.KobakR.DiamondG. S.HerresJ. (2020). Attachment and parent-adolescent discrepancies in reports of family functioning among suicidal adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(1), 227–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01566-7
CohenS.KamarckT., &MermelsteinR. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
12.
CohenJ. R.SpiroC. N.YoungJ. F.GibbB. E.HankinB. L.AbelaJ. R. (2015). Interpersonal risk profiles for youth depression: A person-centered, multi-wave, longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(8), 1415–1426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0023-x
13.
CompasB. E.OrosanP. G.GrantK. E. (1993). Adolescent stress and coping: Implications for psychopathology during adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 16(3), 331–349. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.1993.1028
14.
CuiM.DonnellanM. B.CongerR. D. (2007). Reciprocal influences between parents’ marital problems and adolescent internalizing and externalizing behavior. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1544–1552. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1544
15.
CummingsE. M.KossK. J.DaviesP. T. (2015). Prospective relations between family conflict and adolescent maladjustment: Security in the family system as a mediating process. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(3), 503–515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9926-1
16.
DavilaJ.HammenC.BurgeD.PaleyB.DaleyS. E. (1995). Poor interpersonal problem solving as a mechanism of stress generation in depression among adolescent women. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104(4), 592–600. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843x.104.4.592
17.
DumontM.ProvostM. A. (1999). Resilience in adolescents: Protective role of social support, coping strategies, self-esteem, and social activities on experience of stress and depression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28(3), 343–363. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1021637011732
18.
FendrichM.WarnerV.WeissmanM. M. (1990). Family risk factors, parental depression, and psychopathology in offspring. Developmental Psychology, 26(1), 40–50. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.26.1.40
19.
FlouriE.BuchananA. (2002). The protective role of parental involvement in adolescent suicide. Crisis. The Journal of Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention, 23(1), 17–22. https://doi.org/10.1027//0227-5910.23.1.17
20.
GallaB. M.WoodJ. J. (2015). Trait self‐control predicts adolescents’ exposure and reactivity to daily stressful events. Journal of Personality, 83(1), 69–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12083
21.
GeX.CongerR. D.ElderG. H.Jr (2001). Pubertal transition, stressful life events, and the emergence of gender differences in adolescent depressive symptoms. Developmental Psychology, 37(3), 404–417. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.37.3.404
22.
GeorgeM. W.FairchildA. J.CummingsE. M.DaviesP. T. (2014). Marital conflict in early childhood and adolescent disordered eating: Emotional insecurity about the marital relationship as an explanatory mechanism. Eating Behaviors, 15(4), 532–539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.06.006
GrychJ. H.FinchamF. D. (1990). Marital conflict and children’s adjustment: a cognitive-contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin, 108(2), 267. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.2.267
25.
HallC. A.SandbergJ. G. (2012). “We shall overcome”: A qualitative exploratory study of the experiences of African Americans who overcame barriers to engage in family therapy. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 40(5), 445–458. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2011.637486
26.
HamiltonJ. L.StangeJ. P.AbramsonL. Y.AlloyL. B. (2015). Stress and the development of cognitive vulnerabilities to depression explain sex differences in depressive symptoms during adolescence. Clinical Psychological Science, 3(5), 702–714. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702614545479
27.
HammackP. L.RobinsonW. L.CrawfordI.LiS. T. (2004). Poverty and depressed mood among urban African-American adolescents: A family stress perspective. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 13(3), 309–323. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:jcfs.0000022037.59369.90
28.
HankinB. L. (2009). Development of sex differences in depressive and co-occurring anxious symptoms during adolescence: Descriptive trajectories and potential explanations in a multiwave prospective study. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 38(4), 460–472. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410902976288
29.
HewittP. L.CaelianC. F.ChenC.FlettG. L. (2014). Perfectionism, stress, daily hassles, hopelessness, and suicide potential in depressed psychiatric adolescents. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 36(4), 663–674. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-014-9427-0
30.
HooperD.CoughlanJ.MullenM. R. (2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Journal of Business Research Methods, 6(1), 53–60.
31.
HorwitzA. G.HillR. M.KingC. A. (2011). Specific coping behaviors in relation to adolescent depression and suicidal ideation. Journal of Adolescence, 34(5), 1077–1085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.10.004
JacksonJ. S.TorresM.CaldwellC. H.NeighborsH. W.NesseR. M.TaylorR. J.WilliamsD. R. (2004). The National survey of American life: a study of racial, ethnic and cultural influences on mental disorders and mental health. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 13(4), 196–207. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.177
34.
KellerP. S.Mark CummingsE.DaviesP. T. (2005). The role of marital discord and parenting in relations between parental problem drinking and child adjustment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(9), 943–951. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00399.x
35.
KesslerR. C.AvenevoliS.MerikangasK. R. (2001). Mood disorders in children and adolescents: an epidemiologic perspective. Biological Psychiatry, 49(12), 1002–1014. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01129-5
LindseyM. A.JoeS.NebbittV. (2010). Family matters: The role of mental health stigma and social support on depressive symptoms and subsequent help seeking among African American boys. Journal of Black Psychology, 36(4), 458–482. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798409355796
38.
Lucas-ThompsonR. G.LunkenheimerE. S.DumitracheA. (2017). Associations between marital conflict and adolescent conflict appraisals, stress physiology, and mental health. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 46(3), 379–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1046179
MandaraJ.MurrayC. B.JoynerT. N. (2005). The impact of fathers’ absence on African American adolescents’ gender role development. Sex Roles, 53(3–4), 207–220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-5679-1
41.
MazzaJ. J.AbbottR. D.FlemingC. B.HarachiT. W.CortesR. C.ParkJ.CatalanoR. F. (2009). Early predictors of adolescent depression: A 7-year longitudinal study. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 29(5), 664–692. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431608324193
42.
McLeodJ. D.NonnemakerJ. M. (2000). Poverty and child emotional and behavioral problems: Racial/ethnic differences in processes and effects. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41(2), 137–161. https://doi.org/10.2307/2676302
43.
MillerA. B.Esposito-SmythersC.LeichtweisR. N. (2015). Role of social support in adolescent suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. Journal of Adolescent Health, 56(3), 286–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.10.265
44.
MoakZ. B.AgrawalA. (2010). The association between perceived interpersonal social support and physical and mental health: results from the National epidemiological survey on alcohol and related conditions. Journal of Public Health, 32(2), 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdp093
45.
MountsN. S.ValentinerD. P.AndersonK. L.BoswellM. K. (2006). Shyness, sociability, and parental support for the college transition: Relation to adolescents’ adjustment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35(1), 68–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-005-9002-9
46.
NeedhamB. L. (2008). Reciprocal relationships between symptoms of depression and parental support during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37(8), 893–905. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-007-9181-7
47.
NeedhamB. L.AustinE. L. (2010). Sexual orientation, parental support, and health during the transition to young adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(10), 1189–1198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9533-6
48.
O'HaraK. L.SandlerI. N.WolchikS. A.TeinJ. Y. (2019). Coping in context: The effects of long-term relations between interparental conflict and coping on the development of child psychopathology following parental divorce. Development and Psychopathology, 31(5), 1695–1713. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419000981
49.
OldfieldJ.HumphreyN.HebronJ. (2016). The role of parental and peer attachment relationships and school connectedness in predicting adolescent mental health outcomes. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 21(1), 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12108
50.
OngA. D.PhinneyJ. S.DennisJ. (2006). Competence under challenge: Exploring the protective influence of parental support and ethnic identity in Latino college students. Journal of Adolescence, 29(6), 961–979. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.04.010
51.
PowellV.RiglinL.HammertonG.EyreO.MartinJ.AnneyR., &RiceF. (2020). What explains the link between childhood ADHD and adolescent depression? Investigating the role of peer relationships and academic attainment. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29(11), 1581–1591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-019-01463-w
52.
PreacherK. J.HayesA. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 36(4), 717–731. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03206553
53.
RadloffL. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
54.
RaufelderD.HoferichterF.RingeisenT.RegnerN.JackeC. (2015). The perceived role of parental support and pressure in the interplay of test anxiety and school engagement among adolescents: Evidence for gender-specific relations. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(12), 3742–3756. https:/doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0182-y
55.
RepettoP. B.CaldwellC. H.ZimmermanM. A. (2004). Trajectories of depressive symptoms among high risk African-American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 35(6), 468–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2003.12.007
56.
RiceK. G.ColeD. A.LapsleyD. K. (1990). Separation-individuation, family cohesion, and adjustment to college: Measurement validation and test of a theoretical model. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 37(2), 195–202. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.37.2.195
57.
RohrlichJ. A.RanierR.Berg‐CrossL.Berg‐CrossG. (1977). The effects of divorce: A research review with a developmental perspective. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 6(2), 15–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374417709532754
58.
RoseA. J.GlickG. C.SmithR. L.Schwartz-MetteR. A.BorowskiS. K. (2017). Co-rumination exacerbates stress generation among adolescents with depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45(5), 985–995. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0205-1
59.
RossmanB. R., &RosenbergM. S. (1992). Family stress and functioning in children: The moderating effects of children’s beliefs about their control over parental conflict. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33(4), 699–715.
60.
SagrestanoL. M.PaikoffR. L.HolmbeckG. N.FendrichM. (2003). A longitudinal examination of familial risk factors for depression among inner-city African American adolescents. Journal of Family Psychology, 17(1), 108–120. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.17.1.108
61.
SantiagoC. D.BrewerS. K.FullerA. K.TorresS. A.PapadakisJ. L.RosA. M. (2017). Stress, coping, and mood among Latino adolescents: A daily diary study. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 27(3), 566–580. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12294
62.
SchmidtgallK.KingA.ZarskiJ. J.CooperJ. E. (2000). The effects of parental conflict on later child development. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 33(1–2), 149–157. https://doi.org/10.1300/j087v33n01_09
63.
Schoppe‐SullivanS. J.SchermerhornA. C., &CummingsE. M. (2007). Marital conflict and children’s adjustment: Evaluation of the parenting process model. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(5), 1118–1134.
64.
SextonT.TurnerC. W. (2010). The effectiveness of functional family therapy for youth with behavioral problems in a community practice setting. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(3), 138–339. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019406
65.
SheeberL.HopsH.DavisB. (2001). Family processes in adolescent depression. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4(1), 19–35. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1009524626436
66.
ShoreyH. S.SnyderC. R.YangX.LewinM. R. (2003). The role of hope as a mediator in recollected parenting, adult attachment, and mental health. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22(6), 685–715. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.22.6.685.22938
67.
SilvaR. R.AlpertM.MunozD. M.SinghS.MatznerF.DummitS. (2000). Stress and vulnerability to posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(8), 1229–1235. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.8.1229
68.
SmithO. A.NelsonJ. A.AdelsonM. J. (2019). Interparental and parent–child conflict predicting adolescent depressive symptoms. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(7), 1965–1976. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01424-6
69.
SpiritoA.FrancisG.OverholserJ.FrankN. (1996). Coping, depression, and adolescent suicide attempts. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 25(2), 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2502_3
70.
SticeE.RaganJ.RandallP. (2004). Prospective relations between social support and depression: Differential direction of effects for parent and peer support?Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113(1), 155–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.113.1.155
71.
TandonD. S.SolomonB. S. (2009). Risk and protective factors for depressive symptoms in urban African American adolescents. Youth and Society, 41(1), 80–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118x08327520
72.
ThomasP. A.KrampeE. M.NewtonR. R. (2008). Father presence, family structure, and feelings of closeness to the father among adult African American children. Journal of Black Studies, 38(4), 529–546. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934705286101
73.
ThompsonV. L. S.BazileA.AkbarM. (2004). African Americans' perceptions of psychotherapy and psychotherapists. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 35(1), 19–26. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.35.1.19
74.
TimmonsA. C., &MargolinG. (2015). Family conflict, mood, and adolescents’ daily school problems: Moderating roles of internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Child Development, 86(1), 241–258.
75.
TsaiK. M.DahlR. E.IrwinM. R.BowerJ. E.McCreathH.SeemanT. E.AlmeidaD. M.FuligniA. J. (2018). The roles of parental support and family stress in adolescent sleep. Child Development, 89(5), 1577–1588. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12917
76.
Van LoonL. M.Van de VenM. O.Van DoesumK. T.WittemanC. L.HosmanC. M. (2014). The relation between parental mental illness and adolescent mental health: The role of family factors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23(7), 1201–1214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9781-7
77.
VivonaJ. M. (2000). Parental attachment styles of late adolescents: Qualities of attachment relationships and consequences for adjustment. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47(3), 316–329. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.47.3.316
78.
VoisinD. R.ElsaesserC.KimD. H.PatelS.CantaraA. (2016). The relationship between family stress and behavioral health among African American adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(7), 2201–2210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0402-0
79.
XuY.LiuY.ChenZ.ZhangJ.DengH., &GuJ. (2019). Interaction effects of life events and hair cortisol on perceived stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms among Chinese adolescents: testing the differential susceptibility and diathesis-stress models. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 297. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00297
