The Epidemiology of Cardiovascular Disease in Women

Office of Population Censuses and Surveys. Mortality statistics 1991. Series DH1 No. 26. London: HMSO, 1993.

Thom T J Epstein F H Feldman J J Leaverton P E Wolz M. Total mortality and mortality from heart disease, cancer and stroke from 1950 to 1987 in 27 countries. NIH Publication No. 92-3088, 1992.

Goldman L. Cook E. F. Reasons for the decline in coronary heart disease mortality: Medical intervention versus life-style changes. In: Higgins M W Luepker R V , eds. Trends in coronary heart disease mortality. The influence of medical care. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988: 67–75.

Bonita R. Beaglehole R. Increased treatment of hypertension does not explain the decline in stroke mortality in the United States, 1970–1980. Hypertension 1989; 13: 169–173.

Patrick C H Palesch Y Y Feinleib M. Brody J. A. Sex differences in declining cohort rates from heart disease. Am J Public Health 1982; 72: 161–66.

Epstein F. H. The relationship of lifestyle to international trends in CHD. Int J Epidemiol 1989; 18: S203–S209.

Isles C G Hole D J Hawthorne V M Lever A. J. Relation between coronary risk and coronary mortality in women in the Renfrew Paisley Survey: Comparison with men. Lancet 1992; 339: 702–706.

Barret-Connor E. Bush T. L. Estrogen and coronary heart disease in women. JAMA 1991; 265: 1861–67.

Ness R B Harris T. Cobb J. . Number of pregnancies and the subsequent risk of cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 1528–33.

Wenger N K Packard B. Cardiovascular health and disease in women. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 247–56.

Khaw K. T. Where are the women in studies of coronary heart disease? Br Med J 1993; 306: 1145–46.

Stamler J. Rhomberg P. Schoenberger J A . Multivariate analysis of the relationship of seven variables to blood pressure. Findings of the Chicago Heart Association Detection Project in Industry, 1967–1972. J Chron Dis 1975; 28: 527–48.

Higgins M. Keller J B Ostrander L. D. Risk factors for coronary heart disease in women: Tecumseh Community Health Study, 1959 to 1980. In: Eaker E. Packard B. Wenger N. Clarkson T. Tyroler H A eds. Coronary heart disease in women. New York: Haymarket Doyma, 1987: 83–89.

Dawber T. The Framingham Study. The epidemiology of atherosclerotic disease. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980.

Bush T L Criqui M H Cowan L D . Cardiovascular disease mortality in women: Results from the Lipid Research Clinics Follow-up Study. In: Eaker E. Packard B. Wenger N. Clarkson T. Tyroler H A eds. Coronary heart disease in women. New York: Haymarket Doyma, 1987: 106–11.

Amery A. Birkenhager W. Brixko R. . Efficacy of antihypertensive drug treatment according to age, sex, blood pressure and previous cardiovascular disease in patients over the age of 60. Lancet 1986; ii: 589–92.

Coope J. Warrender T. S. Randomised trial of treatment of hypertension in elderly patients in primary care. Br Med J 1986; 293: 1145.

Dahlof B. Lindholm L H Hanson L. Schersten B. Ekbom T. Wester P-O. Morbidity and mortality in the Swedish trial in old patients with hypertension (STOP-Hypertension). Lancet 1991; 338: 1281–85.

Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program Cooperative Research Group. Implications of the systolic hypertension in the Elderly Program. Hypertension 1993; 21: 335–43.

Medical Research Council Working Party. MRC trial of treatment of mild hypertension: Principal results. Br Med J 1985; 291: 97.

Medical Research Council Working Party. MRC trial of treatment of hypertension in older adults: Principal results. Br Med J 1992; 304: 405–12.

Hypertension Detection and Follow-up Program Cooperative Group. Five-year findings of the Hypertension Detection and Follow-Up Program I. Reduction in mortality in persons with high blood pressure, including mild hypertension. JAMA 1979; 242: 2562–71.

Report by the Management Committee. The Australian Therapeutic Trial in Mild Hypertension. Lancet 1982; i: 1261–67.

McMahon S. Peto R. Cutler J. . Blood pressure, stroke and coronary heart disease. Part 1, prolonged differences in blood pressure: Prospective observational studies corrected for the regression dilution bias. Lancet 1990; 335: 765–74.

WHO/ISH. Guidelines for the management of mild hypertension: Memorandum from a World health Organization/International Society of Hypertension Meeting. J Hypertens 1993; 11: 905–18.

The Fifth Report of the Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure [NIH Publication No. 93-1088]. Arch Intern Med 1993; 153: 154–83.

Sever P. Beevers G. Bulpitt C J . Management guidelines in essential hypertension; report of the second working party of the British Hypertension Society. Br Med J 1993; 306: 983–87.

Law M R Frost C D Wald N. J. By how much does dietary salt reduction lower blood pressure. I. Analysis of observational data among populations Br Med J 1991; 312: 811–15.

Law M R Frost C D Wald N. J. By how much does dietary salt reduction lower bood pressure. II. Analysis of observational data within populations. Br Med J 1991; 312: 815–18.

Elliott P. Observational studies on salt and blood pressure. Hypertension 1991; 17: 13–18.

Fiebach N H Herbert P R Stampfer M J . A prospective study of high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease in women. Am J Epidemiol 1989; 130: 646–54.

The Trials of Hypertension Prevention Collaborative Research Group. The effects of non pharmacologic interventions on blood pressure of persons with high normal levels. Results of the trials of hypertension prevention, phase 1. JAMA 1992; 267: 1213–20.

Blaufox Langford HG Oberman A. Hawkins C M Smoller Wassertheil S. Cutler G. C. Effect of dietary change on the return of hypertension after withdrawal of prolonged antihypertensive therapy. J Hypertens 1984; 2: 179–81.

Kronmal R A Cain K C Ye Z. Omenn G. S. Total serum cholesterol levels and mortality risk as a function of age. Arch Intern Med 1993; 153: 1065–73.

Manolio T A Pearson T A Wenger N K . Cholesterol and heart disease in older persons and women. Review of an NHLBI Workshop. Ann Epidemiol 1992; 2: 161–76.

Bush T L Fried L P Barret-Connor E. Cholesterol, lipoproteins and coronary heart disease in women. Clin Chem 1988; 34: B60–B67.

Khaw K T Connor Barret E. Sex differences, hormones and coronary heart disease, in: Marmot M. Elliott P. Coronary heart disease epidemiology. From aetiology to public health. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992: 274–86.

Follick M J Abrams D B Smith T W Henderson L O Herbert R. Contrasting short and long term effects of weight loss on lipoprotein levels. Arch Intern Med 1984; 144: 1571–74.

Hammond E C Garfinkel L. Coronary heart disease, stroke, and aortic aneurysms, factors in the etiology. Arch Environ Health 1969; 19: 167–82.

Kawachi I. Colditz G A Stampfer M J . Smoking cessation and decrease risk of stroke in women. JAMA 1993; 269: 232–36.

Shapiro S. Weinblatt E. Frank C W Sager R. V. Incidence of coronary heart disease in a population insured for medical care (HIP). Am J Public Health 1969; 59: 1–107.

La Croix A X Lang J. Scherr P. . Smoking and mortality among older men and women in three communities. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 1619–25.

Aronow W S Herzig A H Fritzner E. D'Alba P. Ronquillo J. 40 month follow up of risk factors correlated with new coronary events in 708 elderly patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 1989; 37: 501–506.

US Department of Health and Human Services. The health benefits of smoking cessation. Department of Health and Human Services Publication No. CDC 90-8416, 1990.

Butler W J Ostrander L D Carman W J Lamphier D. E. Mortality from coronary heart disease in the Tecumseh Study. Am J Epidemiol 1985; 121: 541–47.

Barrett-Connor E. Wingard D. L. Sex differentials in ischaemic heart disease mortality in diabetics. Am J Epidemiol 1983; 118: 489–96.

Pan W H Cedres L B Liu K. . Relationship of clinical diabetes and asymptomatic hyperglycaemia to risk of coronary disease mortality in men and women. Am J Epidemiol 1986; 123: 504–16.

Heyden S. Heiss G. Hames Bartel C. G. Sex differences in coronary mortality among diabetics in Evans County, Georgia. J Chron Dis 1980; 33: 265–73.

Barret-Connor E. Khaw K. Diabetes mellitus: An independent risk factor for stroke? Am J Epidemiol 1988; 128: 116–23.

Kannel W B McGee D. L. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease: The Framingham Study. JAMA 1979; 241: 2035–38.

Manson J. Colditz G A Stampfer M J . A prospective study of maturity-onset diabetes mellitus and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke in women. Arch Intern Med 1991; 151: 1141–47.

Ernst E. Resch K. L. Fibrinogen as a cardiovascular risk factor: A meta analysis and review of the literature. Ann Intern Med 1993; 118: 956–63.

Kannel W B D'Agostino R B Belanger A. J. Update on fibrinogen as a cardiovascular risk factor. Ann Epidemol 1992; 2: 457–66.

Meade T W Imeson J. Stirling Y. Effects of changes in smoking and other characteristics on clotting factors and the risk of ischaemic heart disease. Lancet 1987; ii: 986–88.

Manson J E Colditz G A Stampfer M J . A prospective study of obesity and risk of coronary heart disease in women. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 882–89.

Kushner R. F. Body weight and mortality. Nutr Rev 1993; 51: 127–36.

Rumpel C. Harris T B Madans J. Modification of the relationship between the Quetelet Index and mortality by weight-loss history among older women. Ann Epidemiol 1993; 3: 343–50.

Lapidus L. Bengtsson C. Larsson B. Pennert K. Sjostrom L. Distribution of adipose tissue and risk of cardiovascular diseases and death. A 12 year follow up of participants in the population study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden. Br Med J 1984; 289: 1257–61.

Prineas R J Folsom A R Kaye S. A. Central adiposity and increased risk of coronary artery disease mortality in older women. Ann Epidemiol 1993; 3: 35–41.

Folsom A R Kaye S A Sellers T A . Body fat distribution and 5 year risk of death in older women. JAMA 1993; 269: 483–87.

Office of Population Censuses and Surveys. Longitudinal study. Mortality and social organization. Sociodemographic mortality differentials 1971–86. Series LS No. 6. Goldblatt P O ed. London: HMSO, 1990.

Woodward M. Shewry M C Smith W C S Tunstall-Pedo H. Social status and coronary heart disease: Results from the Scottish Heart Health Study. Prev Med 1992; 21: 136–48.

Black D. Morris J N Smith C. Townsend P. Inequalities in health. The Black Report. In: Townsend P. Davidson N. Whitehead M. eds. The health divide. London: Penguin Books, 1990.

Findley I N Dargie H J Dyke T. . Coronary angiography in Glasgow: Relation to CHD and social class. Br Heart J 1991; 66: 70.

Powell K E Thompson P D Caspersen C J Kendrick J. S. Physical activity and the incidence of coronary heart disease. Annu Rev Public Health 1987; 8: 253–87.

Colditz G. A. A prospective assessment of moderate alcohol intake and major chronic diseases. Ann Epidemiol 1990; 1: 167–77.

Klatsky A L Armstrong M A Friedman G. D. Alcohol and mortality. Ann Intern Med 1992; 117: 646–54.

Gey K. F. Prospects for the prevention of free radical disease, regarding cancer and cardiovascular disease. Br Med Bull 1993; 49: 679–99.

Gey K F Puska P. Jordan P. Moser U. K. Inverse correlation between plasma vitamin E and mortality from ischaemic heart disease in cross cultural epidemiology. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 53: 326S–34S.

Gey K F Moser U K Jordan P. Stahelin E B Eicholzer M. Ludin E. Increased risk of cardiovascular disease at suboptimal plasma levels of essential antioxidants. Am J Clin Nutr 1993; 57: 778S–89S.

Salonen J T Salonen R. Seppanen K. . Relationship of serum selenium and antioxidants to plasma lipoproteins, platelet aggregability and prevalent ischaemic heart disease in Eastern Finnish men. Atherosclerosis 1988; 170: 155–60.

Smith Bolton C. Woodward M. Pedoe Tunstall H. The Scottish Heart Health Study. Dietary intake by food frequency questionnaire and odds ratio for coronary heart disease risk. II. The antioxidant vitamins and fibre. Eur J Clin Nutr 1992; 46: 85–93.

Stampfer M J Hennekens C H Manson J E Colditz G A Rosner B. Willett W. C. Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary disease in women. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 1444–49.

Kim I. Williamson D F Byers T. Koplan J. P. Vitamin and mineral supplement use and mortality in a US cohort. Am J Public Health 1993; 83: 546–50.

Hennekens C H Buring J E Sandercock P. Collins R. Peto R. Aspirin and other antiplatelet agents in the secondary and primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 1989; 80: 749–56.

Manson J E Stampfer M J Colditz G A . A prospective study of aspirin use and primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in women. JAMA 1991; 266: 521–27.

Stampfer M J Colditz G. A. Estrogen replacement therapy and coronary heart disease: A quantitative assessment of the epidemiologic evidence. Prev Med 1991; 20: 47–63.