Destination gamification has emerged as a significant strategy for enhancing tourist attraction. This study adopts a mixed-methods approach, utilizing both qualitative and quantitative methods to conceptualize destination gamification and examine its impact on tourist behavior. Study 1 developed and validated a 6-dimensional, 30-item Destination Gamification Scale. Guided by the MOA model, Study 2 investigates how motivation, travel constraints, and self-efficacy influence tourists’ engagement with destination gamification. The findings contribute to the literature by advancing the theoretical understanding of destination gamification and, more specifically, by providing a validated scale for its measurement. Furthermore, this study offers practical implications for destination managers aiming to design and implement gamified experiences with their strategic planning.
AbbasiAZTsiotsouRHHussainK, et al. (2023) Investigating the impact of social media images’ value, consumer engagement, and involvement on eWOM of a tourism destination: a transmittal mediation approach. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services71: 103231.
2.
Abou-ShoukMSolimanM (2021) The impact of gamification adoption intention on brand awareness and loyalty in tourism: the mediating effect of customer engagement. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management20: 100559.
3.
AebliA (2019) Tourists’ motives for gamified technology use. Annals of Tourism Research78: 102753.
4.
AlčakovićSPavlovićDPopeskuJ (2017) Millennials and gamification: A model proposal for gamification application in tourism destination. Marketing48(4): 207.
5.
BanduraA (1977) Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review84: 191–215.
6.
BanduraA (1986) Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: SAGE Publications.
7.
BanduraA (2002) The Psychology of Sustainable Development. Boston, MA: Springer US, 209–238.
8.
BanduraAWesselsS (1997) Self-efficacy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
9.
BartleR (1996) Hearts, clubs, diamonds, spades: players who suit MUDs. Journal of MUD Research1(1): 19.
10.
BartoliEElmiBPascuzziDSmortiA (2018) Gamification in Tourism. Psychology and Behavioral Science International Journal8(3): 93–95.
11.
BettmanJR (1979) Information processing theory of consumer choice. Reading, MA and London: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
12.
BondMHHwangK-k (1986) The social psychology of Chinese people. Oxford University Press.
13.
BravoRCatalánSPinaJM (2021) Gamification in tourism and hospitality review platforms: How to R.A.M.P. up users’ motivation to create content. International Journal of Hospitality Management99: 103064.
14.
ChenC-CPetrickJF (2016) The roles of perceived travel benefits, importance, and constraints in predicting travel behavior. Journal of Travel Research55(4): 509–522.
15.
ChenGGullySMEdenD (2001) Validation of a new general self-efficacy scale. Organizational Research Methods4(1): 62–83.
16.
ChenH-JChenP-JOkumusF (2013) The relationship between travel constraints and destination image: a case study of Brunei. Tourism Management35: 198–208.
17.
ChurchillGA (1979) A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. Journal of Marketing Research16(1): 64–73.
18.
CorrêaaCKitanoaC (2015) Gamification in tourism: Analysis of brazil quest game. Proceedings of ENTER.
19.
CrawfordDWGodbeyG (1987) Reconceptualizing barriers to family leisure. Leisure Sciences9(2): 119–127.
20.
CrawfordDWJacksonELGodbeyG (1991) A hierarchical model of leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences13(4): 309–320.
21.
CreswellJWClarkVLP (2017) Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Sage publications.
22.
CsikszentmihalyiM (2000) Beyond boredom and anxiety. Jossey-bass.
23.
DaleNFRitchieBW (2020) Understanding travel behavior: a study of school excursion motivations, constraints and behavior. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management43: 11–22.
24.
DeciELOlafsenAHRyanRM (2017) Self-determination theory in work organizations: the state of a science. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior4(1): 19–43.
25.
DeciELRyanRM (2000) The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry11(4): 227–268.
26.
DeterdingSDixonDKhaledR, et al. (2011) From game design elements to gamefulness: Defining “gamification”. In: Proceedings of the 15th International Academic MindTrek Conference: Envisioning Future Media Environments. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery, 9–15.
27.
DoranAPomfretG (2019) Exploring efficacy in personal constraint negotiation: an ethnography of mountaineering tourists. Tourist Studies19(4): 475–495.
28.
Dunn RossELIso-AholaSE (1991) Sightseeing tourists’ motivation and satisfaction. Annals of Tourism Research18(2): 226–237.
29.
EcclesJS (1983) Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In: Achievement and Achievement Motives. Freeman, 75–146.
30.
FanDXFJiaG (2023) How do tourists respond to meta-stereotypes? Understanding their willingness to interact, self-presentation and the role of power. Tourism Management94: 104652.
31.
FornellCLarckerDF (1981) Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research18(1): 39–50.
32.
Frías-JamilenaDMFernández-RuanoMLPolo-PeñaAI (2022) Gamified environmental interpretation as a strategy for improving tourist behavior in support of sustainable tourism: the moderating role of psychological distance. Tourism Management91: 104519.
33.
Gard McGeheeN (2002) Alternative tourism and social movements. Annals of Tourism Research29(1): 124–143.
34.
GodovykhMTasciADA (2020) Customer experience in tourism: a review of definitions, components, and measurements. Tourism Management Perspectives35: 100694.
35.
HaggerMSChatzisarantisNBiddleSJH (2001) The influence of self-efficacy and past behaviour on the physical activity intentions of young people. Journal of Sports Sciences19(9): 711–725.
36.
HairJF (2009) Multivariate data analysis. Exploratory factor analysis.
37.
HamariJTuunanenJ (2014) Player types: A meta-synthesis.
38.
HeckhausenH (2013) The anatomy of achievement motivation. Academic press.
39.
HesariSAzizan KohanN (2021) The role of restriction in motivation of winter sports tourists in the alvares ski resort in ardabil province. Research in Sport Management and Marketing2(2): 14–27.
40.
HuangSHsuCHC (2009) Effects of travel motivation, past experience, perceived constraint, and attitude on revisit intention. Journal of Travel Research48(1): 29–44.
41.
HuangSWenJ (2021) Developing and validating a Chinese cultural value scale in tourism. Tourism Management86: 104327.
42.
HungKPetrickJF (2010) Developing a measurement scale for constraints to cruising. Annals of Tourism Research37(1): 206–228.
43.
HungKPetrickJF (2012) Testing the effects of congruity, travel constraints, and self-efficacy on travel intentions: an alternative decision-making model. Tourism Management33(4): 855–867.
44.
HungKSirakaya-TurkEIngramLJ (2011) Testing the efficacy of an integrative model for community participation. Journal of Travel Research50(3): 276–288.
45.
HwangJChoiL (2020) Having fun while receiving rewards?: exploration of gamification in loyalty programs for consumer loyalty. Journal of Business Research106: 365–376.
46.
iimedia (2022) 2022–2023 China script killing industry development status and consumer behaviour research and analysis report. Reportno. Report Number|, Date. Place Published|: Institution|.
47.
JamalTGetzD (1999) Community roundtables for tourism-related conflicts: the dialectics of consensus and process structures. Journal of Sustainable Tourism7(3–4): 290–313.
48.
JiaoYWangY (2025) The formation of tourists’ pro-environmental behavior in natural history museum scene: a configuration analysis based on motivation–opportunity–ability theory. Journal of Vacation Marketing31(4): 886–903.
49.
KattiyapornpongUMillerKE (2009) Socio-demographic constraints to travel behavior. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research3(1): 81–94.
50.
KimHKuBKimJY, et al. (2016) Confirmatory and exploratory factor analysis for validating the phlegm pattern questionnaire for healthy subjects. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine2016(1): 2696019.
51.
KimJ-HRitchieJRBMcCormickB (2012) Development of a scale to measure memorable tourism experiences. Journal of Travel Research51(1): 12–25.
52.
KunasekaranPMRSMingzhuoW, et al. (2022) Enhancing local community participation towards heritage tourism in Taiping, Malaysia: application of the motivation-opportunity-ability (MOA) model. Journal of Heritage Tourism17(4): 465–484.
53.
KwekALeeY-S (2010) Chinese Tourists and confucianism. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research15(2): 129–141.
54.
LearyMRKowalskiRM (1990) Impression management: a literature review and two-component model. Psychological Bulletin107(1): 34–47.
55.
LeeBC (2019) The effect of gamification on psychological and behavioral outcomes: implications for cruise tourism destinations. Sustainability11(11): 3002.
56.
LeeSJLina KimH (2018) Roles of perceived behavioral control and self-efficacy to volunteer tourists’ intended participation via theory of planned behavior. International Journal of Tourism Research20(2): 182–190.
57.
LeppAGibsonH (2008) Sensation seeking and tourism: tourist role, perception of risk and destination choice. Tourism Management29(4): 740–750.
58.
LiJPearcePLOktadianaH (2020) Can digital-free tourism build character strengths?Annals of Tourism Research85: 103037.
59.
LiMCaiLA (2011) The effects of personal values on travel motivation and behavioral intention. Journal of Travel Research51(4): 473–487.
60.
LitmanJASpielbergerCD (2003) Measuring epistemic curiosity and its diversive and specific components. Journal of Personality Assessment80(1): 75–86.
61.
LiuXFuXYuanY, et al. (2023) Understanding gay tourists’ involvement and loyalty towards Thailand: the perspective of motivation-opportunity-ability. Journal of Vacation Marketing30(3): 439–458.
62.
LiuY (2023) Experiencing China’s intangible cultural heritage in role-playing games: comparative studies between MMORPGs and larps. International Journal of Role-Playing. (14): 41–46.
63.
LiuYCHungYY (2016) Self-efficacy as the moderator: exploring driving factors of perceived social support for mainland Chinese students in Taiwan. Computers in Human Behavior64: 455–462.
64.
LowryPBGaskinJTwymanN, et al. (2012) Taking ‘fun and games’ seriously: proposing the hedonic-motivation system adoption model (HMSAM). Journal of the Association for Information Systems14(11): 617–671.
65.
LyuSO (2016) Travel selfies on social media as objectified self-presentation. Tourism Management54: 185–195.
66.
MacInnisDJJaworskiBJ (1989) Information processing from advertisements: toward an integrative framework. Journal of Marketing53(4): 1–23.
67.
MaclnnisDJMoormanCJaworskiBJ (1991) Enhancing and measuring consumers’ motivation, opportunity, and ability to process brand information from ads. Journal of Marketing55(4): 32–53.
68.
MasonPAugustynMSeakhoa-KingA (2010) Exploratory study in tourism: designing an initial, qualitative phase of sequenced, mixed methods research. International Journal of Tourism Research12(5): 432–448.
69.
MoosDCMarroquinE (2010) Multimedia, hypermedia, and hypertext: motivation considered and reconsidered. Computers in Human Behavior26(3): 265–276.
70.
NgJYYNtoumanisNThøgersen-NtoumaniC, et al. (2012) Self-determination theory applied to health contexts: a meta-analysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science7(4): 325–340.
71.
Nilsson VestolaJEk StyvénM (2024) Drivers and inhibitors of gen Z’s proenvironmental travel engagement: exploring MOA factors and goal frames. Young Consumers: Insight and Ideas for Responsible Marketers26(7): 55–73.
NyaupaneGPAndereckKL (2008) Understanding travel constraints: application and extension of a leisure constraints model. Journal of Travel Research46(4): 433–439.
74.
OlanderEKFletcherHWilliamsS, et al. (2013) What are the most effective techniques in changing obese individuals’ physical activity self-efficacy and behaviour: a systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity10(1): 1–15.
75.
PradhanDMalikGVishwakarmaP (2023) Gamification in tourism research: a systematic review, current insights, and future research avenues. Journal of Vacation Marketing31(1): 130–156.
76.
RasoolimaneshSMJaafarMAhmadAG, et al. (2017) Community participation in World Heritage Site conservation and tourism development. Tourism Management58: 142–153.
77.
SalumGAPatrickDLIsolanLR, et al. (2012) Youth quality of life instrument-research version (YQOL-R): propriedades psicométricas em uma amostra comunitária. Jornal de Pediatria88: 443–448.
78.
SchlenkerBR (1980) Impression management: The self-concept. In: Social Identity, and Interpersonal Relations. Monterey: CA: Brooks/Cole.
79.
SchmittB (1999) Experiential marketing. Journal of Marketing Management15(1–3): 53–67.
80.
SchrederGSiebenhandlKMayrE (2009) E-inclusion in public transport: The role of self-efficacy. In Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics). p. 301–311.
81.
SharmaAPandherJSPrakashG (2023) Consumer confusion and decision postponement in the online tourism domain: the moderating role of self-efficacy. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights6(2): 1092–1117.
82.
ShenY (2020) Gamification in Tourism and Hospitality: Theoretical Foundations, Player Typology, and Effectiveness.University of Guelph.
83.
ShenYChoiHCJoppeM, et al. (2020) What motivates visitors to participate in a gamified trip? A player typology using Q methodology. Tourism Management78: 104074.
84.
ShiSLeungWKSMunelliF (2022) Gamification in OTA platforms: a mixed-methods research involving online shopping carnival. Tourism Management88: 104426.
85.
ShinHNicolauJLKangJ, et al. (2022) Travel decision determinants during and after COVID-19: the role of tourist trust, travel constraints, and attitudinal factors. Tourism Management88: 104428.
86.
SkarinFOlssonLEFrimanM, et al. (2019) Importance of motives, self-efficacy, social support and satisfaction with travel for behavior change during travel intervention programs. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour62: 451–458.
87.
VancouverJBThompsonCMTischnerEC, et al. (2002) Two studies examining the negative effect of self-efficacy on performance. Journal of Applied Psychology87(3): 506–516.
88.
WeiZZhangJHuangX, et al. (2023) Can gamification improve the virtual reality tourism experience? Analyzing the mediating role of tourism fatigue. Tourism Management96: 104715.
89.
WhiteDD (2008) A structural model of leisure constraints negotiation in outdoor recreation. Leisure Sciences30(4): 342–359.
90.
WigginsJAWigginsBBVander ZandenJW (1994) Social psychology. McGraw-Hill Humanities Social.
91.
XuFBuhalisDWeberJ (2017) Serious games and the gamification of tourism. Tourism Management60: 244–256.
92.
XuFTianFBuhalisD, et al. (2016) Tourists as mobile gamers: gamification for tourism marketing. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing33(8): 96–114.
93.
XuFWeberJBuhalisD (2013) Gamification in Tourism. In: XiangZTussyadiahI (eds) Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2014. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 523–537.
94.
YangFXWongIATanXS, et al. (2020) The role of food festivals in branding culinary destinations. Tourism Management Perspectives34: 100671.
95.
YeeRWYMiquel-RomeroM-JCruz-RosS (2021) Why and how to use enterprise social media platforms: the employee’s perspective. Journal of Business Research137: 517–526.
96.
YinRK (2017) Case study research and applications: Design and methods. Sage publications.
97.
YooCWGooJHuangCD, et al. (2017) Improving travel decision support satisfaction with smart tourism technologies: a framework of tourist elaboration likelihood and self-efficacy. Technological Forecasting and Social Change123: 330–341.
98.
YuJHuJLiuG, et al. (2024) Not just a game: understanding eco-gamification in sustainable destination development. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management60: 10–21.
99.
ZangZ (2022) Exploring the impact of extrinsic motivation on users’ intention to continue using a gamified tourism commerce platform. In SHS Web of Conferences148.
100.
ZhangHXuH (2019) A structural model of liminal experience in tourism. Tourism Management71: 84–98.
101.
ZhangW-YZhangS-NRuanW-Q, et al. (2025) Can gamification marketing enhance the digital destination image of cultural heritage sites?Journal of Vacation Marketing. DOI: 10.1177/13567667251333476.
102.
ZuckermanM (1979) Sensation seeking: Beyond the optimal level of arousal. New York, L. NY: Erlbaum Associates.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
