Research on visual attention and perceived crowding in culture-oriented tourism destinations remains scant. This study examines the effects of varying environmental stimuli on tourists’ visual attention to cultural landscapes. Eye-tracking experiments and self-reported surveys were used to collect data (n = 50). Participants were asked to view photos presenting varying environmental stimuli (e.g. crowding, mask-wearing measurement, etc.) in two culture-oriented tourism destinations (indoor and outdoor culture-oriented tourism destinations), followed by a questionnaire survey. Findings revealed that tourists paid more attention to the human crowds than cultural landscape when social density increased. Perceived crowding was significantly influenced by visual attention to cultural landscapes in both indoor and outdoor tourism destinations, with more silent effects in indoor settings. The findings of this study extend the normative theory of crowding and dual-process theory, and provide practical insights to optimize design for cultural landscapes and facilities to minimize tourists’ perceived crowding in culture-oriented tourism destinations.
BackmanSJHuangY-CChenC-C, et al. (2022) Engaging with restorative environments in wellness tourism. Current Issues in Tourism. 26(5), 789-806. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2022.2039100.
2.
BaeSYChangP-J (2021) The effect of coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) risk perception on behavioural intention towards “untact” tourism in South Korea during the first wave of the pandemic (March 2020). Current Issues in Tourism24(7): 1017–1035.
3.
BetzTKietzmannTCWilmingN, et al. (2010) Investigating task-dependent top-down effects on overt visual attention. Journal of Vision10(3): 15.11–15.14.
4.
BuckleyROllenburgCZhongL (2008) Cultural landscape in Mongolian tourism. Annals of Tourism Research35(1): 47–61.
5.
CarrascoM (2011) Visual attention: the past 25 years. Vision Research51(13): 1484–1525.
6.
CetinGBilgihanA (2016) Components of cultural tourists’ experiences in destinations. Current Issues in Tourism19(2): 137–154.
DingSZhangRLiuY, et al. (2023) Visitor crowding at world heritage sites based on tourist spatial-temporal distribution: a case study of the Master-of-Nets Garden, China. Journal of Heritage Tourism18(5): 632–657.
9.
DupontLOomsKDuchowskiAT, et al. (2017) Investigating the visual exploration of the rural–urban gradient using eye-tracking. Spatial Cognition and Computation17(1-2): 65–88.
10.
Echeverria-HuarteIGarcimartinAHidalgoRC, et al. (2021) Estimating density limits for walking pedestrians keeping a safe interpersonal distancing. Scientific Reports11(1). Article 1534. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-79454-0
11.
Ensenat-SoberanisFBlanco-GregoryR (2022) Crowding perception at the archaeological site of Tulum, Mexico: a key indicator for sustainable cultural tourism. Land11(10). Article 1651. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11101651
12.
FrischenABaylissAPTipperSP (2007) Gaze cueing of attention: visual attention, social cognition, and individual differences. Psychological Bulletin133(4): 694–724.
13.
FuXLiuXLiZ (2024) Catching eyes of social media wanderers: how pictorial and textual cues in visitor-generated content shape users’ cognitive-affective psychology. Tourism Management 100. Article 104815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2023.104815.
14.
GaoYZhangTZhangW, et al. (2020) Research on visual behavior characteristics and cognitive evaluation of different types of forest landscape spaces. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening54, Article 126788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126788
15.
Garcia-CarrionBMunoz-LeivaFDel Barrio-GarciaS, et al. (2024, Mar) The effect of online message congruence, destination-positioning, and emojis on users’ cognitive effort and affective evaluation. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management31, Article 100842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2023.100842
16.
GrovesPMThompsonRF (1970) Habituation: a dual-process theory. Psychological Review77(5): 419–450.
17.
HeywoodJLMurdockWE (2002, Jul-Dec) Social norms in outdoor recreation: searching for the behavior-condition link. Leisure Sciences24(3–4): 283–295.
18.
HuangAS-HLinY-J (2020) The effect of landscape colour, complexity and preference on viewing behaviour. Landscape Research45(2): 214–227.
19.
HwangJYoonS-YBendleLJ (2012) Desired privacy and the impact of crowding on customer emotions and approach-avoidance responses waiting in a virtual reality restaurant. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management24(2–3): 224–250.
20.
JacobsenJKSIversenNMHemLE (2019) Hotspot crowding and over-tourism: antecedents of destination attractiveness. Annals of Tourism Research76: 53–66.
21.
JiangSLiuJ (2024) Comparative study of cultural landscape perception in historic districts from the perspectives of tourists and residents. Land13(3), Article 353. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13030353
22.
KassnerMPateraWBullingA, et al. (2014). Pupil: An Open Source Platform for Pervasive Eye Tracking and Mobile Gaze-based Interaction. [Proceedings of the 2014 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (UBICOMP’14 adjunct)]. In: ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (UbiComp), Seattle, WA.
23.
KebirLCrevoisierO (2008). Cultural resources and regional development: the case of the cultural legacy of watchmaking. European Planning Studies16(9): 1189–1205. Article Pii 905430735.
24.
KimY-JKangS-W (2021) Perceived crowding and risk perception according to leisure activity type during COVID-19 using spatial proximity. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health18(2). Article 457. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020457.
25.
KongSHuangZScottN, et al. (2019) Web advertisement effectiveness evaluation: attention and memory. Journal of Vacation Marketing25(1): 130–146.
26.
KouLWeiCChiCG, et al. (2024) Understanding sensescapes and restorative effects of nature-based destinations: a mixed-methods approach. Journal of Sustainable Tourism: 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2024.2324021.
27.
KrajbichIArmelCRangelA (2010) Visual fixations and the computation and comparison of value in simple choice. Nature Neuroscience13(10): 1292.
28.
KrukarJEekAV (2019) The Impact of Indoor/Outdoor Context on Smartphone Interaction During Walking. In: 22nd AGILE Conference on Geo-information Science.
29.
KyleGGraefeAManningR, et al. (2004) Effects of place attachment on users’ perceptions of social and environmental conditions in a natural setting. Journal of Environmental Psychology24(2): 213–225.
30.
LawsonSChamberlinRChoiJ, et al. (2011) Modeling the effects of shuttle service on transportation system performance and quality of visitor experience in Rocky Mountain National Park. Transportation Research Record Journal of the Transportation Research Board2244(2244): 97–106.
31.
LeverMWShenYJoppeM (2019) Reading travel guidebooks: Readership typologies using eye-tracking technology. Journal of Destination Marketing and Management14, Article 100368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2019.100368
32.
LiMChenYWangJ, et al. (2020a) Children’s attention toward cartoon executed photos. Annals of Tourism Research80: 102799.
33.
LiPXiaoXJordanE (2022) Tourists’ visual attention and stress intensity in nature-based tourism destinations: an eye-tracking study during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Travel Research 62(8): 1667–1684. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875221138788.
34.
LiPXiaoXPengH (2023) Visitors’ perceived crowding, visual attention, and COVID infection risks in national parks: a social density optimization approach. Leisure Sciences: 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2023.2267543.
35.
LiQHuangZChristiansonK (2016) Visual attention toward tourism photographs with text: an eye tracking study. Tourism Management54: 243–258.
36.
LiWZhangSXuK (2020b) The application and selection of eye-trackers in cognitive behavioral experiments. Software Guide19(2): 80–83.
LiuAMaE (2019) Travel during holidays in China: crowding’s impacts on tourists’ positive and negative affect and satisfactions. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management41: 60–68.
39.
ManningRE (1999) Crowding and carrying capacity in outdoor recreation: from normative standards to standards of quality. Leisure Studies Prospects for the Twenty.
ManningREFreimundWALimeDW, et al. (1996) Crowding norms at frontcountry sites: a visual approach to setting standards of quality. Leisure Sciences18(1): 39–59.
42.
MilmanATasciADAWeiW (2020) Crowded and popular: the two sides of the coin affecting theme-park experience, satisfaction, and loyalty. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management18, Article 100468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2020.100468
43.
MokatrenMKuflikTShimshoniI (2018) Exploring the potential of a mobile eye tracker as an intuitive indoor pointing device: a case study in cultural heritage. Future Generation Computer Systems-The International Journal of Escience81: 528–541.
44.
MorganNHastingsEPritchardA (2012) Developing a new DMO marketing evaluation framework: the case of Visit Wales. Journal of Vacation Marketing18(1): 73–89.
45.
Navarro JuradoEDamianIMFernández-MoralesA (2013) Carrying capacity model applied in coastal destinations. Annals of Tourism Research43: 1–19.
46.
NeedhamMDRollinsRBWoodCJB (2004) Site-specific encounters, norms and crowding of summer visitors at alpine ski areas. International Journal of Tourism Research6(6): 421–437.
47.
NeutsBNijkampP (2012) Tourist crowding perception and acceptability in cities an applied modelling study on Bruges. Annals of Tourism Research39(4): 2133–2153.
48.
OrquinJLWedelM (2020) Contributions to attention based marketing: foundations, insights, and challenges. Journal of Business Research111: 85–90.
49.
PerryEEXiaoXIretskaiaTA, et al. (2022) A review of digitalization and sustainability in parks and recreation indicators and thresholds research. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism-Research Planning and Management39, Article 100550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2022.100550.
50.
PierdiccaRPaolantiMNaspettiS, et al. (2018) User-centered predictive model for improving cultural heritage augmented reality applications: an HMM-based approach for eye-tracking data. Journal of Imaging4(8), Article 101. https://doi.org/10.3390/jimaging4080101.
51.
PierdiccaRPaolantiMQuattriniR, et al. (2020) A visual attentive model for discovering patterns in eye-tracking data – a proposal in cultural heritage. Sensors20(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/s20072101.
52.
RasoolimaneshSMJaafarMMarzukiA, et al. (2016) How visitor and environmental characteristics influence perceived crowding. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research21(9): 952–967.
53.
RigantiPNijkampP (2008) Congestion in popular tourist areas: a multi-attribute experimental choice analysis of willingness-to-wait in Amsterdam. Tourism Economics14(1): 25–44.
54.
RizzolattiGRiggioLDascolaI, et al. (1987) Reorienting attention across the horizontal and vertical meridians – evidence in favor of a premotor theory of attention. Neuropsychologia25(1A): 31–40.
55.
SangCCMirjafariAWeaverHB (1976) The concept of crowding: a critical review and proposal of an alternative approach. Environment and Behavior8(3): 345–362.
56.
Santana-JimenezYHernandezJM (2011) Estimating the effect of overcrowding on tourist attraction: the case of Canary Islands. Tourism Management32(2): 415–425.
57.
SchmidtDEKeatingJP (1979) Human crowding and personal control – an integration of the research. Psychological Bulletin86(4): 680–700.
58.
ScottNZhangRLeD, et al. (2019) A review of eye-tracking research in tourism. Current Issues in Tourism22(10): 1244–1261.
59.
SeverIVerbicM (2018) Providing information to respondents in complex choice studies: a survey on recreational trail preferences in an urban nature park. Landscape and Urban Planning169: 160–177.
60.
ShelbyBVaskeJJDonnellyMP (1996) Norms, standards, and natural resources. Leisure Sciences18(2): 103–123.
61.
SimeonMIBuonincontriPCinquegraniF, et al. (2017) Exploring tourists’ cultural experiences in Naples through online reviews. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology8(2): 220–238.
62.
SimolaJKuismaJOorniA, et al. (2011) The impact of salient advertisements on reading and attention on web pages. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Applied17(2): 174–190.
63.
ThompsonRFSpencerWA (1966) Habituation – a model phenomenon for study of neuronal substrates of behavior. Psychological Review73(1): 16.
64.
VaskeJJDonnellyMP (2002) Generalizing the encounter–norm–crowding relationship. Leisure Sciences24(3–4): 255–269.
65.
WangYSparksBA (2014) An eye-tracking study of tourism photo stimuli: image characteristics and ethnicity. Journal of Travel Research55(5): 588–602.
66.
WedelMPietersR (2008) Visual Marketing: From Attention to Action. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
67.
XiaoXGaoJLuJ, et al. (2023) Social carrying capacity and emotion dynamics in urban national parks during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism-Research Planning and Management41, Article 100451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2021.100451.
68.
XiaoXLuJManningR, et al. (2019) Defining and monitoring the quality of shared-use transportation facilities in parks and recreation areas. International Journal of Sustainable Transportation13(6–10): 692–702.
69.
YanGXiongJZangC, et al. (2013) Review of eye-movement measures in reading research. Advances in Psychological Science21(4): 589–605.
70.
YinJChengYBiY, et al. (2020) Tourists perceived crowding and destination attractiveness: the moderating effects of perceived risk and experience quality. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management18: 100489.
71.
YueZBurleyJBCuiZ, et al. (2021) Visitor capacity considering social distancing in urban parks with agent-based modeling. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health18(13). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136720.
72.
ZhangLMiaoYLinnaA (2023) An experimental eye-movement study on the spatial attraction characteristics and perception of different landscape types in ethnic villages. Journal of Urban Planning and Development149(4): 04023039.
73.
ZhangXRyanCCaveJ (2016) Residents, their use of a tourist facility and contribution to tourist ambience: narratives from a film tourism site in Beijing. Tourism Management52: 416–429.
74.
ZhaoYLinJLiuY (2020) Research on visual evaluation of tourism scenery based on eye movement experiment: a case of Tangjia ancient town in Zhuhai. Human Geography35(05): 130–140.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
