The Role of the Kynurenine Pathway in the (Patho) physiology of Maternal Pregnancy and Fetal Outcomes: A Systematic Review

Abstract

Introduction:

Tryptophan is the precursor of kynurenine pathway (KP) metabolites which regulate immune tolerance, energy metabolism, and vascular tone. Since these processes are important during pregnancy, changes in KP metabolite concentrations may play a role in the pathophysiology of pregnancy complications. We hypothesize that KP metabolites can serve as novel biomarkers and preventive therapeutic targets. This review aimed to provide more insight into associations between KP metabolite concentrations in maternal and fetal blood, and in the placenta, and adverse maternal pregnancy and fetal outcomes.

Methods:

A systematic search was performed on 18 February 2022 comprising all KP metabolites, and keywords related to maternal pregnancy and fetal outcomes. English-written human studies measuring KP metabolite(s) in maternal or fetal blood or in the placenta in relation to pregnancy complications, were included. Methodological quality was assessed using the ErasmusAGE quality score (QS) (range: 0-10). A meta-analysis of the mean maternal tryptophan and kynurenine concentrations in uncomplicated pregnancies was conducted.

Results:

Of the 6262 unique records, 37 were included (median QS = 5). Tryptophan was investigated in most studies, followed by kynurenine, predominantly in maternal blood (n = 28/37), and in the second and third trimester of pregnancy (n = 29/37). Compared to uncomplicated pregnancies, decreased tryptophan in maternal blood was associated with an increased prevalence of depression, gestational diabetes mellitus, fetal growth restriction, spontaneous abortion, and preterm birth. Elevated tryptophan was only observed in women with pregnancy-induced hypertension compared to normotensive pregnant women. In women with preeclampsia, only kynurenic acid was altered; elevated in the first trimester of pregnancy, and positively associated with proteinuria in the third trimester of pregnancy.

Conclusions:

KP metabolite concentrations were altered in a variety of maternal pregnancy and fetal complications. This review implies that physiological pregnancy requires a tight balance of KP metabolites, and that disturbances in either direction are associated with adverse maternal pregnancy and fetal outcomes.

Keywords

tryptophan pregnancy depression gestational diabetes mellitus preeclampsia pregnancy-induced hypertension fetal growth restriction preterm birth spontaneous abortion

Introduction

The essential amino acid tryptophan is required for protein synthesis, and is therefore important for growth and development of the placenta and fetus. Tryptophan is also the substrate for multiple metabolic pathways, including the serotonin pathway, tryptamine pathway and indole pathway.¹ However, by far the greatest proportion of tryptophan (>95%) is metabolized via the kynurenine pathway (KP). KP metabolites have pro- and antioxidant effects and are involved in many physiological processes that play a key role in pregnancy, including the regulation of vascular tone in the mother and placenta, immune tolerance, and neuroprotection.^2,3 Indeed, the KP, and equally important, the transport of its metabolites across the placenta, affect placental function and pregnancy outcome.^4,5

The KP is regulated by the hepatic tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO)2, and the extrahepatic indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO)1 and IDO2.^3,6 These enzymes catalyze the conversion of L-tryptophan into N-formylkynurenine, which can be further metabolized into L-kynurenine, kynurenic acid, anthranilic acid, 3-hydroxy-anthranilic acid, quinolinic acid, picolinic acid, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) (Figure 1). In 1998, Munn et al⁷ revealed that inhibition of IDO resulted in pregnancy loss in mice, indicating that the KP is crucial to maintain pregnancy. The placenta is one of the few human tissues that constitutively expresses IDO1 under physiological conditions.^2,8 Its expression and activity are reduced in pregnancies complicated by fetal growth restriction (FGR) and preeclampsia (PE).^5,9-12

Figure 1.

Overview of the kynurenine pathway (modified from: Broekhuizen et al⁵).

Under physiological conditions, total tryptophan concentrations decrease throughout pregnancy in maternal blood, while kynurenine concentrations remain constant.¹³ However, reference values of KP metabolites during pregnancy are currently lacking, and it is unclear how changes in tryptophan and kynurenine concentrations affect the downstream KP metabolites. Nevertheless, it is essential that KP metabolite concentrations are maintained within a certain range throughout pregnancy. This was demonstrated in animal studies in which tryptophan supplementation improved fetal growth and neonatal outcome, while excessive tryptophan intake led to a decreased placental and fetal weight and increased fetal mortality.^14-18

Although the tryptophan metabolizing pathways toward melatonin and serotonin production have been implicated to play a role in pregnancy complications,^19-24 little is yet known about how alterations in tryptophan metabolism into KP metabolites relate to pregnancy complications. Variations in KP metabolite concentrations as potential cause or consequence of pregnancy complications, may serve as novel biomarkers and/or (preventive) therapeutic targets. Therefore, this systematic review provides an overview of the current literature on KP metabolites variations during pregnancy in maternal blood, fetal blood, and the placenta in relation to maternal pregnancy and fetal outcomes.

Methods

This systematic review was performed in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines,²⁵ and the Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (MOOSE) guidelines.²⁶ The protocol was designed a priori and registered in PROSPERO, an international prospective register of systematic reviews (registration number: CRD42021273120).

Search strategy, information sources, and eligibility criteria

A comprehensive literature search was performed in Embase, Medline, Web of Science, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials databases, including studies published before 18 February 2022. The full search strategy is shown in the Supplemental Appendix, but in short, it included synonyms of all KP metabolites, and terms related to the periconception and pregnancy periods, and maternal pregnancy and fetal outcomes.

Studies were eligible if KP metabolites were measured during the periconception period or pregnancy in maternal or fetal blood or in the placenta, and were related to maternal pregnancy or fetal outcomes. We included human studies written in the English language. Letters, editorials, opinion papers, case reports, case series, conference abstracts, and reviews were excluded.

Study Selection and Data Extraction

Three independent reviewers (A.J.P.S. (initial search), M.B. (search update), and S.K.M.v.Z.) screened the title and abstract of unique records identified by the search. Next, the full texts of the selected studies were retrieved and assessed for final inclusion by two independent reviewers (M.B. and S.K.M.v.Z.). These 2 reviewers extracted the data from the included studies independently by using a pre-specified template. Throughout all stages of the selection and extraction processes, disagreements between the 2 reviewers were resolved by consensus or by consultation of a third reviewer (L.v.R.).

Assessment of risk of bias

Two independent reviewers (M.B.and S.K.M.v.Z.) assessed the risk of bias using the ErasmusAGE quality score.^27,28 This quality score consists of 5 items comprising study design (0 = cross-sectional, 1 = longitudinal, 2 = intervention), study size (0 = <100, 1 = 100-500, 2 = >500 participants), exposure (0 = not reported, 1 = moderate, 2 = adequate exposure measurement), outcome measurement (0 = not appropriate, 1 = moderate, 2 = adequate), and adjustments for confounders (0 = unadjusted, 1 = adjusted for key confounders, 2 = adjusted for additional covariates). This results in a quality score ranging between 0 and 10, with 10 representing the highest quality. The ErasmusAGE quality score is based on previously published scoring systems developed for in vivo clinical studies.^27,28 However, no such scoring system exists for ex vivo studies.

Data synthesis

We performed a narrative synthesis of the results of the included studies, grouped into maternal pregnancy and fetal outcomes. The direction of the associations between the KP metabolite concentrations and maternal pregnancy and fetal outcomes are presented in tables (Tables 2 -6). The measures of effect were represented as in the original studies, and displayed as effect estimate (mean, median, β, or fold change (FC), with its respective error measure (standard deviation (SD), standard error (SE)), 95% confidence interval (95% CI), or interquartile range (IQR)), sample size (N) and P-value. If the measures of effect were not reported, the raw data (already available or provided upon request) were used to perform statistical analyses: linear regression analysis for continuous outcome variables, and an independent sample t-test to compare KP metabolite concentrations between 2 groups.

Since KP concentrations depend on the timing of sampling during pregnancy,¹³ and reference values during uncomplicated pregnancy are lacking, a meta-analysis was conducted of the means of KP metabolite concentrations per trimester of pregnancy with the condition that at least 3 studies reported absolute values of a specific KP metabolite in a similar matrix (maternal or fetal blood, or in the placenta). All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (IBM SPSS Statistics 25) and R (R for Windows, version 3.5,²⁹ R Package Meta³⁰). A P-value < .05 was considered statistically significant.

Results

Study selection

The search identified 6262 unique records, of which 64 were found eligible for full-text reading after title and abstract screening. After reading the full texts, 37 studies were finally included (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Flowchart of the process of literature search and selection of studies for this systematic review.

Study characteristics

The most important study characteristics are summarized in Table 1, showing that tryptophan and kynurenine were most frequently investigated compared to the other KP metabolites. A minority (n = 11) of the studies also measured other KP metabolites, including N-formylkynurenine, kynurenic acid, anthranilic acid, 3-hydroxykynurenine, xanthurenic acid, 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid, quinolinic acid, and picolinic acid. The KP metabolites were predominantly determined in maternal blood, but also in umbilical cord blood, and placental tissue. The KP metabolites were studied in relation to various maternal pregnancy and fetal outcomes. Maternal pregnancy outcomes included depression and anxiety during pregnancy, gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), PE and pregnancy-induced hypertension (PIH), whereas fetal outcomes comprised FGR, birth weight, preterm birth (PTB), preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM), and spontaneous abortion (SA).

Table 1.

Descriptive information of each included study.

Author	QS	Country	Sample size	Study design	Time period	Exposure	Outcome	Measured KP metabolites	Biological matrix	Timing of sampling
Depression and anxiety during pregnancy
Sha et al³¹	7	USA	1st trimester = 122 2nd trimester = 88 3rd trimester = 82	Cohort	2015-2018	Depression	KP metabolite concentrations	Trp, Kyn, KA, QA, PA	Maternal plasma	1st, 2nd, and 3rd trimester
Keane et al³²	6	Ireland	N = 209: IBS = 105 Control = 104	Cohort	Nov 2004-Jan 2011	Depression, anxiety	Trp and Kyn concentrations	Trp, Kyn	Maternal plasma	15 and 20 weeks
Groer et al³³	5	USA	N = 374	Cross-sectional	NM	Depression	Trp and Kyn concentrations	Trp, Kyn	Maternal serum	2nd trimester
van Lee et al³⁴	8	Singapore	N = 572	Cohort	Jun 2009-Sep 2010	Depression, anxiety	Trp and Kyn concentrations	Trp, Kyn	Maternal plasma	26-28 weeks
Nazzari et al³⁵	6	Italy	N = 97	Cohort	NM	Depression, anxiety	KP metabolite concentrations	Trp, Kyn	Maternal serum	34-36 weeks
Teshigawara et al³⁶	5	Japan	N = 132	Cohort	Oct 2012-Jan 2017	Depression	KP metabolite concentrations	Trp, Kyn, KA, AA, 3-HK, 3-HAA	Maternal plasma	3rd trimester
Scrandis et al³⁷	3	USA	N = 27	Cohort	NM	Depression	Trp and Kyn concentrations	Trp, Kyn	Maternal serum	35-38 weeks
Gestational diabetes mellitus
McMichael et al³⁸	5	USA	N = 68: GDM = 34 non-GDM = 34	Case-control	NM	GDM	Metabolomic profile	Trp, Kyn, KA	Maternal plasma	10-16 weeks
Jiang et al³⁹	8	China	N = 431	Cohort	Aug 2015-Jan 2016	GDM	Amino acid concentrations	Trp	Maternal serum	12-16 weeks
Zheng et al⁴⁰	6	China	N = 60: GDM = 30 Control = 30	Case-control	NM	GDM	Metabolomic profile	Trp	Maternal plasma	20 weeks
Leitner et al⁴¹	4	Austria	N = 32: GDM = 14 Control = 18	Case-control	NM	GDM	Metabolomic profile	Trp	Maternal plasma, maternal urine	12-26 weeks
Preeclampsia
Nilsen et al⁴²	9	Norway	N = 2936	Cohort	Jul 2002-Dec 2003	PE	KP metabolite concentrations	Trp, Kyn, KA, AA, 3-HK, XA, 3-HAA	Maternal plasma	1st trimester
Jääskeläinen et al⁴³	6	UK	N = 161: Early PE = 47 Control = 53 Late PE = 57 Control = 14	Cross-sectional case-control	2008-2011	PE	Metabolomic profile	Trp	Maternal serum	10-15 weeks, 23-41 weeks
Sander et al⁴⁴	6	UK	N = 67: PE = 32 Control = 35	Case-control	NM	PE	Metabolomic profile	3-HAA	Maternal plasma	3rd trimester
Zhao et al⁴⁵	4	China	N = 40: PE = 20 Control = 20	Case-control	NM	PE	KP metabolite concentrations	Trp, NFK, Kyn, KA, 3-HK, XA, 3-HAA, QA, PA, NAD+	Maternal serum, umbilical vein serum	Birth
Liu et al⁴⁶	4	China	N = 38: PE = 14 Control = 24	Case-control	Jan 2015-Dec 2016	PE	Amino acid concentrations	Trp	Maternal blood, umbilical cord blood (dried blood spot)	Before delivery; birth
Kudo et al¹⁰	4	UK	N = 33: PE = 12 Pregnant = 12 Nonpregnant = 12	Case-control	NM	PE	Alterations in KP enzyme expression and activity, as well as KP metabolite concentrations	Trp, Kyn	Maternal plasma, placenta homogenates	3rd trimester
Broekhuizen et al⁵	NA	Netherlands	N = 57: PE = 18 Control = 39	Ex vivo	Jan 2018-Jan 2020	PE	Placental Trp metabolism, the effect of Trp on chorionic plate arteries	Trp, Kyn, KA, AA, 3-HK, XA, 3-HAA, QA	Placenta	Birth
Keaton et al¹¹	NA	Sweden	N = 36: Late-onset PE = 18 Control = 18	Ex vivo	2003-2011	Late-onset PE	Trp, Kyn, and QA concentrations, the degree of expression and activity of the KP	Trp, Kyn, QA	Placenta	Birth
Zardoya-Laguardia et al⁹	NA	Austria	N = 82: FGR = 10 PE = 18 PTB = 10 Control = 44	Ex vivo	NM	PE, FGR	The effect of Trp on vasorelaxation chorionic plate arteries, and vessel back pressure of a placental cotyledon	Kyn	Placenta, chorionic plate arteries	Birth
Dunn et al⁴⁷	NA	UK	N = 12: PE = 6 Control = 6	Ex vivo	NM	PE	Metabolomic profile	Kyn	Placental explant medium	Birth
Pregnancy-induced hypertension
Ferranti et al⁴⁸	7	USA	N = 100	Case-control	Jun 2014-Aug 2015	PE, PIH	Metabolomic profile	Kyn	Maternal serum	8-14 weeks
Grafka et al⁴⁹	5	Poland	N = 210: PIH = 105 Control = 105	Case-control	2010-2014	PIH	Trp concentration	Trp	Maternal plasma	3rd trimester
Valensise et al⁵⁰	4	Italy	N = 22: PIH = 20 Control = 12	Case-control	NM	PIH	Trp concentration	Trp	Maternal plasma, umbilical cord plasma	Birth
Fetal growth (restriction)
Di Giulio et al⁵¹	5	Italy	N = 57: FGR = 8 1st trimester = 13 2nd trimester = 17 3rd trimester = 12 Control = 7	Case-control	NM	FGR, GA	Amino acid concentrations	Trp	Maternal plasma	1st, 2nd, and 3rd trimester
Robinson et al⁵²	7	Belgium, Spain, Italy, Greece	N = 481	Cohort	(1) 2010-2013 (2) 2004-2006 (3) 2011-2013 (4) 2007-2008	Birthweight	Metabolomic profile	Methoxykynurenate (product of XA)	Umbilical cord plasma and serum	Birth
Moros et al⁵³	5	Greece	N = 84: FGR = 48 Control = 36	Cross-sectional	NM	FGR	Metabolomic profile	Trp	Umbilical cord serum, maternal serum	Birth
Favretto et al⁵⁴	5	Italy	N = 43: FGR = 22 AGA = 21	Cohort	Mar 2009-Dec 2009	FGR, GA	Metabolomic profile	Trp, Kyn	Umbilical vein serum	Birth
Cosmi et al⁵⁵	4	Italy	N = 24: sFGR abnormal Dopplers = 4 sFGR normal Dopplers = 4 Control = 16	Case-control	Jan 2009-Jul 2011	sFGR	Metabolomic profile	Trp	Umbilical vein serum	Birth
Milart et al⁵⁶	4	Poland	N = 32	Cross-sectional	NM	Birthweight, placental weight	KA concentration	KA	Maternal serum, umbilical cord serum	Birth
Horgan et al⁵⁷	NA	UK	N = 17: SGA = 9 Control = 8	Ex vivo	NM	SGA	Metabolomic profile	Trp, Kyn	Placental explant medium	Birth
Preterm birth
Li et al⁵⁸	6	China	N = 101: RSA = 50 Control = 51	Case-control	Jan 2016-May 2017	RSA	Metabolomic profile	Kyn	Maternal serum	1st trimester
Guzel et al⁵⁹	5	Turkey	N = 160	Cohort	Jan 2010-Aug 2010	PTB, birth weight	Amino acid concentrations	Trp	Maternal serum	1st trimester
Fei et al⁶⁰	4	China	N = 30 (initial): MA = 15 Control = 15 N = 32 (validation): MA = 18 Control = 14	Case-control	Nov 2014-May 2015	MA	Metabolomic profile	Trp	Maternal serum	1st trimester
Virgiliou et al⁶¹	5	Greece	N = 70: PTB = 35 Control = 35	Case-control	NM	PTB	Metabolomic profile	Trp	Maternal serum, amniotic fluid	2nd trimester
Lizewska et al⁶²	6	Poland	N = 143: PTB = 57 Threatened PTL = 49 Control = 25	Case-control	NM	PTB, threatened PTL, PPROM	Metabolomic profile	Trp	Maternal plasma	3rd trimester
Manuelpillai et al⁶³	NA	Australia	N = 32: PPROM + infection = 8 PPROM - infection = 8 Control = 16	Ex vivo	NM	PPROM +/− infection	KP metabolite concentrations	Kyn, KA, 3-HAA, QA, PA	Umbilical vein blood, placental explant medium	3rd trimester

Abbreviations: Trp, tryptophan; Kyn, Kynurenine; KA, Kynurenic acid; NFK, N-formylkynurenine; AA, anthranilic acid; 3-HK, 3-hydroxykynurenine; XA, xanthurenic acid; 3-HAA, 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid; QA, quinolinic acid; PA, picolinic acid; AGA, appropriate for gestational age; EFW, estimated fetal weight; FGR, fetal growth restriction; GA, gestational age; GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus; IBS, inflammatory bowel syndrome; KP, kynurenine pathway; MA, missed abortion; NA, not applicable; NM, not mentioned; PE, preeclampsia; PIH, pregnancy-induced hypertension; PPROM, preterm premature rupture of membranes; PTB, preterm birth; PTL, preterm labor; QS, quality score; RSA, recurrent spontaneous abortion; sFGR, selective fetal growth restriction; SGA, small for gestational age.

Most of the studies were observational in vivo studies (n = 31), including case-control studies (n = 16), cohort studies (n = 11), and cross-sectional studies (n = 4). The 6 ex vivo studies investigated metabolism of tryptophan along the KP in placental tissue from PE or FGR pregnancies.^{5,9,11,47,57,63} In total 16 studies used metabolomics to identify underlying biological pathways and biomarkers in multiple pregnancy complications.^{38,40,41,43,44,47,48,52-55,57,58,60-62}

The ErasmusAGE quality score of the in vivo studies ranged from 3 to 9, with a median of 5 (IQR = 4-6, Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Boxplots of the ErasmusAGE quality score for the included in vivo studies grouped into studies investigating maternal pregnancy outcomes (depression and anxiety during pregnancy, gestational diabetes mellitus, preeclampsia, and pregnancy-induced hypertension; n = 20) and fetal outcomes (fetal growth restriction, birth weight, preterm birth, preterm premature rupture of membranes, spontaneous abortion; n = 11). The boxplots show the medians with interquartile ranges, the minimum and the maximum values.

The boxplots show the medians with interquartile ranges, the minimum and the maximum values.

Kynurenine Pathway Metabolite Concentrations in Uncomplicated Pregnancies

An overview of maternal tryptophan and kynurenine concentrations from the uncomplicated pregnancy populations in the included studies is given in Table 2. A meta-analysis could only be performed on the second and third trimester concentrations (Supplemental Figure 1). Figure 4 displays the pooled mean concentrations or, when not available, the concentrations from individual studies, including concentrations in non-pregnant state and postpartum. It can be concluded that the maternal tryptophan concentration decreases between the second and third trimester of pregnancy, while the maternal kynurenine concentration remains constant.

Table 2.

Maternal tryptophan and kynurenine concentrations (µmol/L) throughout uncomplicated pregnancies per trimester of pregnancy.

Author	QS	N	Matrix	Fasting	Method of determination	Tryptophan, mean (SD)	Kynurenine, mean (SD)
1st trimester
Sha et al³¹	7	90	Plasma	NM	HPLC + UV-detector	32.9 (5.4)	1.34 (0.33)
2nd trimester
Nilsen et al⁴²	9	2820	Plasma	No	GC-MS/MS, LC-MS/MS	59.0 (9.0)	1.11 (0.21)
Jiang et al³⁹	8	366	Serum	Yes	UHPLC-MS/MS	43.4 (13.1)
van Lee et al³⁴	8	243	Plasma	Yes	LC-MS/MS	49.4 (8.2)	1.06 (0.20)
Sha et al³¹	7	76	Plasma	NM	HPLC + UV-detector	28.4 (4.3)	1.32 (0.17)
Keane et al³²	6	104	Plasma	NM	HPLC + UV-/fluorescence-detector	32.5 (8.9)	0.99 (0.27)
Groer et al³³	5	374	Serum	NM	HPLC + UV-/fluorescence-detector	62.6 (15.2)	1.90 (0.75)
Virgiliou et al⁶¹	5	35	Serum	NM	LC-MS	35.3 (6.2)
3rd trimester/at birth
Sha et al³¹	7	69	Plasma	NM	HPLC + UV-detector	28.4 (4.3)	1.32 (0.17)
Nazzari et al³⁵	6	97	Serum	NM	HPLC + UV-/fluorescence-detector	54.4 (12.0)	1.00 (0.37)
Grafka et al⁴⁹	5	105	Plasma	Yes	IEC + amino acid analyzer	35.0 (9.0)
Zhao et al⁴⁵	4	20	Serum	Yes	LC-MS/MS	34.5 (5.8)	0.85 (0.45)
Kudo et al¹⁰	4	12	Plasma	NM	HPLC + UV-detector	32.7 (4.8)	1.12 (0.17)
Valensise et al⁵⁰	4	12	Plasma	NM	HPLC + UV-detector	35.6 (9.5)
Scrandis et al³⁷	3	27	Serum	NM	LC + UV-/fluorescence-detector	44.9 (9.5)	1.40 (0.40)

Abbreviations: GC, gas chromatography; HPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography; IEX, Ion-exchange chromatography; KP, kynurenine pathway; LC, liquid chromatography; MS, mass spectrometry; MS/MS, tandem mass spectrometry; NM, not mentioned; UHPLC, ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography; UV, ultraviolet.

Figure 4.

Tryptophan and kynurenine concentrations in healthy women, before pregnancy, as well as in the first trimester, second trimester, third trimester of pregnancy, and postpartum. The concentrations in the second and third trimester of pregnancy represent the pooled means ± standard error of tryptophan (N = 7) and kynurenine (N = 5), depicted as filled circles and squares, respectively. The open circles and squares represent values from single studies.

Maternal pregnancy outcomes

Depression and anxiety

Maternal blood

Seven studies (6 cohort, 1 cross-sectional) examined the association between KP metabolites and depressive symptoms (Table 3).^31-37 Only one cohort study (QS = 7) determined KP metabolites in the first trimester of pregnancy, and found no associations with (the severity of) depressive symptoms.³¹

Table 3.

Summary of studies that investigated associations between maternal KP metabolite concentrations and depression and anxiety during pregnancy.

Author	QS	Method	Association or comparison	Trp	Kyn	KA	AA	3-HK	3-HAA	QA	PA
Depression during pregnancy
1st trimester
Sha et al³¹	7	Targeted	EPDS	=	=	=				=	=
2nd trimester
Sha et al³¹	7	Targeted	EPDS	=	=	=				=	=
Keane et al³²	6	Targeted	EPDS	=	=
Groer et al³³	5	Targeted	POMS-D > 20 vs POMS-D ⩽ 20	↓	=
3rd trimester
Sha et al³¹	7	Targeted	EPDS	=	=	=				↑	=
van Lee et al³⁴	8	Targeted	EPDS	=
Nazzari et al³⁵	6	Targeted	EPDS	=	↓
Teshigawara et al³⁶	5	Targeted	Depression (EPDS) vs control	=	=	=	=	=	=
Scrandis et al³⁷	3	Targeted	SIGH-SAD	↓	=
Anxiety
2nd trimester
van Lee et al³⁴	8	Targeted	STAI	=
Keane et al³²	6	Targeted	STAI	=	=
3rd trimester
Nazzari et al³⁵	6	Targeted	STAI	=	=

Symbols: blank, not investigated or not identified in case of metabolomics; =, no association; ↓, negative association/lower concentration; ↑, positive association/higher concentration. Abbreviations: Trp, tryptophan; Kyn, Kynurenine; KA, Kynurenic acid; NFK, N-formylkynurenine; AA, anthranilic acid; 3-HK, 3-hydroxykynurenine; XA, xanthurenic acid; 3-HAA, 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid; QA, quinolinic acid; PA, picolinic acid; KP, kynurenine pathway; EPDS, Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale; POMS-D, Profile of Mood Status depression/dejection subscale; STAI, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.

Of the 3 studies performed in the second trimester of pregnancy,^31-33 one cross-sectional study (QS = 5) revealed lower tryptophan concentrations in women with a more depressed mood assessed by the depression/dejection subscale of the Profile of Mood Status (POMS-D; range 0-60), with a higher score indicating a more depressed mood (POMS-D scores >20 vs ⩽20 = 56.8 vs 63.2 µmol/L, N = 23 vs 351, P = .017).³³ No such associations were found for kynurenine, kynurenic acid, quinolinic acid and picolonic acid.^31-33

Out of 5 third trimester cohort studies,^31,34-37 Scrandis et al³⁷ (QS = 3) showed that tryptophan was negatively associated with depression (β = −.277, N = 27, P = .04), however, the other 4 larger studies did not confirm this.^31,34-36 Interestingly, Scrandis et al³⁷ assessed depressive symptoms using the structured Interview Guide for the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale-Seasonal Affective Disorder (SIGH-SAD), while the other studies used the more recently validated Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS).^31,34-36

Four of these third trimester cohort studies also investigated the association between kynurenine and depression.^31,35-37 The results were conflicting, as these studies reported negative (QS = 6, β = −.002, SE = 0.001, P = .03)³⁵, positive (QS = 7, EPDS ⩾ 13: OR (%) = 256.6, 95% CI = 21.3, 948.6, N = 82, P = .021),³¹ or no associations^34,36,37 between kynurenine and depressive symptoms. Furthermore, Sha et al³¹ reported a positive association between quinolinic acid and (the severity of) depressive symptoms (QS = 7, total EPDS: OR (%) = 41.5, 95% CI = 1.8, 96.6, N = 82, P = .039; EPDS ⩾ 13: OR (%) 98.2, 95% CI = 10.4, 255.7, N = 82, P = .022). Kynurenic acid, anthranilic acid, 3-hydroxykynurenine, and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid were not associated with (the severity of) depressive symptoms.^31,36

Three cohort studies investigated tryptophan and kynurenine in relation to levels of anxiety.^32,34,35 None of these studies found an association between tryptophan or kynurenine and anxiety symptoms during pregnancy. In all 3 studies the state of anxiety was measured using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI).⁶⁴

Summary

Low tryptophan concentrations in maternal blood in the second and third trimester of pregnancy may be associated with a more depressed mood during pregnancy. On the other hand, third-trimester quinolinic acid was positively associated with depression during pregnancy, while the other KP metabolites were not consistently altered in the second or third trimester of pregnancy. None of the studies observed an association between second- and third-trimester tryptophan and kynurenine and anxiety during pregnancy.

Gestational diabetes mellitus

Maternal blood. Four studies (1 cohort, 3 case-control) investigated KP metabolites in relation to GDM (Table 4).^38-41 One case-control study (QS = 5) determined KP metabolites in the first trimester of pregnancy and suggested that kynurenine was elevated in women who developed GDM (FC = 1.42, GDM vs control N = 34 vs 34, P = .03).³⁸ In these women, tryptophan, kynurenic acid and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid concentrations were not altered.³⁸

Table 4.

Summary of studies that investigated associations between maternal KP metabolite concentrations and gestational diabetes mellitus.

Author	QS	Method	Comparison	Trp	Kyn	KA	3-HAA
1st trimester
McMichael et al³⁸	5	Metabolomics	GDM vs control	=	↑	=	=
2nd trimester
Jiang et al³⁹	8	Targeted	GDM	=
Zheng et al⁴⁰	6	Metabolomics	GDM vs control	↓
Leitner et al⁴¹	4	Metabolomics	GDM vs control	↓

Symbols: blank, not investigated or not identified in case of metabolomics; =, no association; ↓ negative association/lower concentration; ↑, positive association/higher concentration. Abbreviations: Trp, tryptophan; Kyn, Kynurenine; KA, Kynurenic acid; NFK, N-formylkynurenine; AA, anthranilic acid; 3-HK, 3-hydroxykynurenine; XA, xanthurenic acid; 3-HAA, 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid; QA, quinolinic acid; PA, picolinic acid; KP, kynurenine pathway; GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus.

The other 3 studies were performed in the second trimester of pregnancy.^39-41 Two of these identified decreased tryptophan concentrations in women with GDM compared to controls through metabolomics (Zheng et al⁴⁰: QS = 6, FC = 0.85, GDM vs. control N = 30 vs 30, P = .001; Leitner et al⁴¹: QS = 4, mean relative concentrations (SD) = 0.39 (0.28) vs 0.53 (0.35), GDM vs control N = 14 vs 18, P = .025 own analysis). However, Jiang et al³⁹ (QS = 8) found no associations between tryptophan and GDM in a large cohort study. In all studies, GDM was diagnosed at 24 to 28 weeks of gestation using a routine oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) criteria for diagnosis of GDM.^38-41

Summary

A low maternal tryptophan concentration in the second trimester of pregnancy may be associated with GDM. This association was not found for other KP metabolites. Although data in the first trimester of pregnancy are limited, kynurenine might be positively associated with developing GDM.

Preeclampsia

Ten studies (5 case-control, 1 cohort, and 4 ex vivo) investigated associations between KP metabolites in maternal blood, fetal blood, and placental tissue and the development of PE (Table 5).^5,9-11,42-47

Table 5.

Summary of studies that investigated associations between maternal, fetal, and placental KP metabolite concentrations and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy.

Author	QS	Method	Association or comparison	Trp	Kyn	NFK	KA	AA	3-HK	XA	3-HAA	QA	PA
Preeclampsia
Maternal blood
1st trimester
Nilsen et al⁴²	9	Targeted	PE vs control	=	=		↑	=	=	=	=
2nd trimester
Jääskeläinen et al⁴³	6	Metabolomics	PE vs control	=
3rd trimester
Sander et al⁴⁴	6	Metabolomics	PE vs control								↑
Zhao et al⁴⁵	4	Targeted	PE vs control	=	=	=	=		=	=	=	=	=
			Proteinuria	=	=	=	+		=	=	=	=	+
Liu et al⁴⁶	4	Targeted	PE vs control	=
Kudo et al¹⁰	4	Targeted	Late-onset PE vs control	↑	=
Umbilical cord blood
Zhao et al⁴⁵	4	Targeted	PE vs control	=	=	=	=		=	=	=	=	=
			Proteinuria	=	=	=	=		=	=	=	=	=
Liu et al⁴⁶	4	Targeted	PE vs control	=
Placenta
Kudo et al¹⁰	4	Targeted	Late-onset PE vs control		↓
Broekhuizen et al⁵	NA	Targeted	Early-onset PE vs control	↑	=		=	=	=	ND	=	=
Keaton et al¹¹	NA	Targeted	Late-onset PE vs control	↓	=							=
Zardoya-Laguardia et al⁹	NA	Targeted	PE vs preterm control		↓
Dunn et al⁴⁷	NA	Metabolomics	PE vs control at 6% O₂		↓
Pregnancy-induced hypertension
Maternal blood
1st trimester
Ferranti et al⁴⁸	7	Metabolomics	PIH vs PE		↓
3rd trimester
Grafka et al⁴⁹	5	Targeted	PIH vs control	↑
Valensise et al⁵⁰	4	Targeted	PIH vs control	=
Umbilical cord blood
Valensise et al⁵⁰	4	Targeted	PIH vs control	=

Symbols: blank, not investigated or not identified in case of metabolomics; =, no association; ↓, negative association/lower concentration; ↑, positive association/higher concentration; ND, not detectable. Abbreviations: Trp, tryptophan; Kyn, Kynurenine; KA, Kynurenic acid; NFK, N-formylkynurenine; AA, anthranilic acid; 3-HK, 3-hydroxykynurenine; XA, xanthurenic acid; 3-HAA, 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid; QA, quinolinic acid; PA, picolinic acid; KP, kynurenine pathway; PE, preeclampsia; PIH, pregnancy-induced hypertension.

Maternal blood

Only one study investigated the association between KP metabolites in the first trimester of pregnancy and PE, and found elevated kynurenic acid concentrations in women who later developed PE (QS = 9, mean (SE) = 0.0233 (0.00077) vs 0.0207 (0.00013) µmol/L, N = 2936, P < .001). At this stage of pregnancy, tryptophan and other KP metabolites were not altered.⁴²

In women who had already developed PE in the third trimester of pregnancy, maternal kynurenic acid, as well as picolinic acid concentrations were positively associated with proteinuria (QS = 4, kynurenic acid: r = .684, N = 40, P < .025; picolinic acid: r = .641, N = 40, P < .031), suggesting a relation with severity of this disease. However, the rise in the concentrations of these metabolites was not large enough to result in statistically significant different concentrations between women with PE and uncomplicated pregnancies in this study.⁴⁵ Most studies did also not identify altered tryptophan concentrations in women with PE in the third trimester of pregnancy (Zhao et al⁴⁵: QS = 4, median (SE) = 37.0 (1.2) in PE vs 34.5 (1.3) in controls, N = 40, P ⩾ .05 ; Liu et al⁴⁶: QS = 4, N = 38, P ⩾ .05; Jääskeläinen et al⁴³: QS = 6, N = 71, P ⩾ .05). Only one study reported increased tryptophan in late-onset PE specifically (QS = 6, mean (SD): 42.8 (6.9) vs 32.7 (4.8) µmol/L, N = 33, P < .001).¹⁰ 3-Hydroxyanthranilic acid levels were elevated in women who had already developed PE in one metabolomics study (QS = 6, FC = 1.76, N = 67, P = .00014),⁴⁴ but this was not confirmed by targeted analysis nor in another metabolomics study.^43,45

Fetal blood

Concentrations of KP metabolites in the umbilical cord blood were similar between PE and uncomplicated pregnancies.^45,46

Placenta

Placental concentrations of tryptophan were increased in early-onset PE (median (IQR) = 26.7 (20.6-30.2) vs 20.5 (15.7-24.1) ng/g tissue, N = 24, P = .005),⁵ and decreased in late-onset PE (mean (SD): 3.85 (0.88) vs 4.86 (1.30) µg/g tissue, N = 36, P = .01).¹¹ Moreover, preeclamptic placentas secreted less kynurenine compared to healthy placentas ex vivo, measured by metabolomics (relative difference = 0.63, N = 12, P < .00005)⁴⁷ as well as targeted analysis (Kudo et al¹⁰: 0.29 (0.04) vs 0.48 (0.06) nmol/mg/min, N = 22, P < .01 ; Zardoya-Laguardia et al⁹: N = 24, P ⩽ .05), implying reduced placental IDO1 activity.

Summary

Kynurenic acid was elevated in the first trimester of pregnancy in women with PE. Furthermore, both kynurenic acid and picolinic acid were positively associated with proteinuria in women with PE in the third trimester of pregnancy. None of the other KP metabolites was changed in maternal blood, nor was any KP metabolite altered in umbilical cord blood. Compared to healthy placentas, placental kynurenine production was lower in preeclamptic placentas, while the placental tryptophan concentration was increased in early-onset PE but decreased in late-onset PE.

Pregnancy-induced hypertension

Maternal blood

Two case-control studies investigated alterations in tryptophan concentrations in the third trimester in pregnancies complicated by PIH. In the largest of the 2 studies, tryptophan was significantly higher in women with PIH compared to controls (QS = 5, mean (SD): 99 (7) vs 35 (9) µmol/L, N = 210, P < .00005).⁴⁹ However, in a smaller cohort study, this difference was not observed (QS = 4, mean (SD): 38.1 (10.3) vs 35.6 (9.5) µmol/L, N = 22).⁵⁰

Although no studies were conducted to investigate variations of other KP metabolites in PIH specifically, the kynurenine concentration was lower in the first trimester in pregnant African American women who developed PIH compared to those who developed PE as identified through metabolomics (QS = 7, N = 100, P < .05).⁴⁸

Fetal blood

No alterations of tryptophan were found in the umbilical cord blood of pregnancies complicated by PIH (mean (SD): 72.1 (16.8) vs 80.2 (19.6) µmol/L, N = 22).⁵⁰

Summary

The tryptophan level is higher in women with PIH at the end of pregnancy compared to normotensive pregnant women.

Fetal outcomes

Fetal growth restriction

Eight studies (3 cohort, 2 cross-sectional, 2 case-control, and 1 ex vivo) investigated the associations between KP metabolites in maternal blood, fetal blood, or placenta and FGR or birthweight (Table 6).^9,51-56,59

Table 6.

Summary of studies that investigated associations between maternal and fetal and placental KP metabolite concentrations and fetal outcomes.

QS	QS	Method	Association or comparison	Trp	Kyn	KA	XA
Fetal growth (restriction)
Maternal blood
1st trimester
Guzel et al⁵⁹	5	Targeted	Birthweight	=
Di Giulio et al⁵¹	5	Targeted	FGR vs control	=
3rd trimester
Moros et al⁵³	5	Metabolomics	FGR vs control	↓
Milart et al⁵⁶	4	Targeted	Birthweight			=
Umbilical cord blood
Robinson et al⁵²	7	Metabolomics	Birthweight	=			↓
Moros et al⁵³	5	Metabolomics	FGR vs control	↓
Favretto et al⁵⁴	5	Metabolomics	FGR vs control	↑	=
Cosmi et al⁵⁵	4	Metabolomics	sFGR twin vsAGA co-twin	↓
Milart et al⁵⁶	4	Targeted	Birthweight			=
Placenta
Zardoya-Laguardia et al⁹	NA	Targeted	FGR vs PTB		↓
Preterm birth
Maternal blood
1st trimester
Li et al⁵⁸	6	Metabolomics	RSA vs control		↑
Guzel et al⁵⁹	5	Targeted	PTB vs control	=
Fei et al⁶⁰	4	Metabolomics	Missed abortion vs control	↓
2nd trimester
Virgiliou et al⁶¹	5	Metabolomics	PTB vs term	↓
3rd trimester
Lizewska et al⁶²	6	Metabolomics	PTB vs term	=
Umbilical cord blood
Manuelpillai et al⁶³	NA	Targeted	PPROM vs control		↓	↑
Placenta
Zardoya-Laguardia et al⁹	NA	Targeted	PTB vs term		↓

Maternal blood

No statistically significant differences were observed in first-trimester tryptophan concentrations between women who did or did not carry a FGR child in two studies (QS = 5 for both).^51,59 Although in adult pregnancies the first-trimester tryptophan concentration was not associated with low birthweight, it was associated with low birthweight in adolescent pregnancies (QS = 5, <2500 g, N = 39, P = .043).⁵⁹ At birth tryptophan concentrations were also lower in women who carried a FGR child compared to uncomplicated pregnancies measured by metabolomics (QS = 5, mean (SD) µmol/L: 15.4 (11.4) vs 24.5 (7.1), N = 84, P < .001).⁵³ However, the third-trimester kynurenic acid concentration was not related to birthweight in uncomplicated pregnancies (QS = 4).⁵⁶

Fetal blood

Most data on umbilical cord blood variations in FGR were acquired using metabolomics and demonstrated conflicting results. One study reported a reduced tryptophan concentration in FGR fetuses (QS = 5, mean (SD) µmol/L: 18.1 (14.8) vs 35.6 (7.3), N = 84, P < .001 (own analysis of supplemental data)),⁵³ and another study showed a trend toward a reduced tryptophan concentration in selective FGR twins compared to their appropriate-for-gestational-age co-twins (QS = 4, N = 20, no P-value reported).⁵⁵ In contrast, a metabolomics study revealed higher tryptophan concentrations in FGR (QS = 5, N = 43, P < .0001) and found that tryptophan was an excellent discriminator between FGR and appropriate-for-gestational-age fetuses, while kynurenine was unaltered.⁵⁴

Tryptophan was not associated with birthweight (QS = 7, N = 42),⁵² nor was kynurenic acid (QS = 4, N = 32).⁵⁶ Only the isomeric form of methoxykynurenate, a product of xanthurenic acid, was negatively associated with birthweight (QS = 7, N = 42, P < .05).⁵²

Placenta

Placental kynurenine formation, as measure for IDO1 activity, was significantly lower in FGR compared to preterm controls (N = 18, P ⩽ .01).⁹ A metabolomics study of the placental explant secretome revealed that with increasing O₂ levels, the concentration of tryptophan decreased, while kynurenine increased in the medium of both explants from small for gestational age and appropriate-for-gestational-age fetuses.⁵⁷

Summary

Although data on maternal KP metabolites in FGR were limited, low tryptophan concentrations in both maternal and fetal blood may be associated with FGR. Despite reduced placental kynurenine production in FGR, kynurenine seemed unaltered in fetal blood.

Preterm birth

Maternal blood

Two metabolomics studies reported a significant association between tryptophan metabolites in the first trimester of pregnancy and SA,^58,60 a condition that may be considered an extreme form of PTB. While one of these studies found a decreased tryptophan concentration in SA (QS = 6, FC = 0.77, N = 32, P = .0026),⁶⁰ kynurenine was found to be increased in the other study (QS = 4, FC = 1.41, N = 101, P = .04),⁵⁸ but neither study confirmed each other’s finding.

Three studies (2 case-control, 1 cohort) investigated metabolomic profile and amino acid profile variations in relation to PTB.^59-61 One metabolomics study found lower second-trimester tryptophan concentrations in women who gave birth prematurely (QS = 5, mean (SD) = 31.11 (5.52) vs 35.31 (6.19) µmol/L, N = 70, P = .0045).⁶¹ However, this association was not confirmed by the other 2 studies through self-reported dietary questionnaires in the first trimester of pregnancy (QS = 5, N = 160)⁵⁹ or metabolomics in the third trimester of pregnancy before initiation of steroid or tocolytic therapy (QS = 6, N = 143).⁶² Also, third-trimester kynurenine concentrations were unaltered (QS = 6, N = 143).⁶²

Fetal blood

Only one study investigated KP metabolites in umbilical cord blood in relation to PTB, in PPROM specifically. In PPROM with intrauterine infection kynurenine was decreased (P = .0019, N = 24), while kynurenic acid was increased (P = .0005, N = 24) when compared to term deliveries.⁶³ Similar results were observed in PPROM without infection, although no statistics were mentioned. This study found no alterations in 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid, quinolinic acid, and picolinic acid concentrations.⁶³

Placenta

Similar to the umbilical cord blood concentrations, ex vivo placental kynurenine formation was significantly lower in preterm compared to term controls (N = 20, P ⩽ .05).⁹

Summary

SA was associated with a lower tryptophan, but a higher kynurenine concentration in maternal blood in the first trimester of pregnancy compared to uncomplicated pregnancies. Similarly, the second-trimester tryptophan concentration was decreased in premature versus term pregnancies. The kynurenine concentration was lower in the premature-born placenta, and fetal blood of PPROM-pregnancies compared to controls.

Discussion

The present study summarized the associations between KP metabolite variations in maternal blood, fetal blood, and placental tissue, and maternal pregnancy and fetal outcomes (Figure 5). KP metabolites were mainly investigated in maternal blood, in the second and third trimester of pregnancy, while data on first-trimester KP metabolites were scarce. Compared to uncomplicated pregnancies, a low maternal tryptophan concentration was associated with depression, GDM, FGR, PTB, and SA, while a high tryptophan concentration was associated with PIH. Furthermore, a high kynurenic acid concentration in the first trimester of pregnancy was associated with developing PE. KP metabolites in fetal blood were investigated in relation to PE, PIH, FGR, and PTB, and only revealed a lower tryptophan concentration in FGR compared to appropriate-for-gestational-age fetuses. In the placenta, the kynurenine concentration and formation were attenuated in pregnancies complicated by PE, FGR, and PTB.

Figure 5.

Summary of kynurenine pathway metabolite alterations in maternal and fetal blood, and in the placenta in relation to pregnancy complications. This figure focusses on kynurenine pathway metabolite alterations, and does not include unmeasured and undetected kynurenine pathway metabolites.

Maternal pregnancy outcomes

Depression

In this study, we found that lower maternal tryptophan and higher maternal quinolinic acid concentrations in the second and third trimester of pregnancy may be related to severity of depression during pregnancy. Quinolinic acid is considered neurotoxic,^65,66 and studies performed in non-pregnant populations also found associations between increased concentrations of quinolinic acid and depression.⁶⁷ The decreased tryptophan and increased quinolinic acid concentrations in depression during pregnancy may, at least partly, be explained by changes in the gut microbiome, which was shown to regulate circulating KP metabolites, and was altered in patients with depressive disorders, but description of the underlying mechanisms falls beyond the scope of this review.^68-72

Gestational diabetes mellitus

Two metabolomics studies reported decreased tryptophan concentrations in women with GDM,^40,41 which was however not confirmed by the large cohort study of Jiang et al³⁹ and the recent study of McMichael et al.³⁸ The latter study did show an increased kynurenine concentration in women with GDM. Although results are ambiguous, potentially decreased tryptophan and increased kynurenine concentrations in maternal blood suggest an increased flux of tryptophan through the KP, possibly due to upregulation of IDO1 by the inflammatory state of GDM.^33,73

Preeclampsia

An elevated kynurenic acid concentration in the first trimester of pregnancy before the onset of PE,⁴² and its correlation with proteinuria in women with PE⁴⁵ could either be a consequence of early PE disturbances or an actual pathophysiological factor in PE. Although tryptophan and kynurenine concentrations were not altered in women with PE, the kynurenic acid concentration was elevated. Yet, kynurenine formation was attenuated in PE placentas. These discrepancies between placental and maternal KP changes indicate that the maternally elevated kynurenic acid concentration reflects KP alterations downstream of kynurenine and is unlikely a result of placental alterations.² Instead, it might originate from another (yet unknown) source, and did not seem to affect the fetal kynurenic acid concentration.⁴⁵

Pregnancy-induced hypertension

Given the lower kynurenine concentration in women with PIH versus PE as identified through metabolomics,⁴⁸ and the similar concentration of kynurenine in PE and healthy women, it seems that women with PIH have both an increased tryptophan and a decreased kynurenine concentration.^49,50 These data thus suggest a decreased flux of tryptophan through the KP in maternal blood in PIH which differs from PE, and potentially represents an altered activity of other KP degrading enzymes, such as hepatic TDO2.

Fetal outcomes

Fetal growth restriction

Given that tryptophan is an essential amino acid and thus required for fetal growth, the relation between tryptophan supply and fetal growth is evident. Indeed, the tryptophan concentration was lower in the umbilical cord blood of fetuses with FGR compared to controls.^53,55 Reduced maternal tryptophan concentrations in FGR pregnancies, though only observed at the end of pregnancy, corroborate with the hypothesis that insufficient maternal tryptophan intake can explain the lower fetal and maternal tryptophan concentrations in FGR pregnancies.^51,53,59

Preterm birth

Women with SA and women with PTB both displayed lower tryptophan concentrations^58,60,61 than women with term pregnancies. Low maternal tryptophan concentrations in PTB may affect fetal KP metabolites, but this remains subject for future studies. Maternal kynurenine concentrations were elevated in SA. It should be noted that in SA and PTB, KP metabolites have only been measured in maternal blood through metabolomics, or were calculated using self-reported dietary questionnaires, and therefore require more research.

Placental kynurenine pathway metabolites

Placental conversion of tryptophan into kynurenine, representing IDO1 activity, was decreased in multiple human pregnancy complications including PE, FGR, PTB, and SA,^{5,9,10,47,74,75} suggesting that impaired KP flux may have a pathological role in human pregnancy complications.

Tryptophan can induce IDO1-dependent vasodilation in placental arteries, but in contrast to the decreased placental production of kynurenine by IDO1, vasodilation by tryptophan was enhanced in PE.⁵ A possible explanation for this observation might be that the placental KP function is determined by tryptophan transport rather than by IDO1 activity.^5,76 Another potential explanation is that PE and FGR are both associated with placental insufficiency and hypothesized to encompass a hypoxic placental environment. A lower concentration of the IDO1 cofactor O₂ was shown to reduce IDO1 expression⁷⁷ and attenuate placental metabolism of tryptophan into kynurenine.⁵⁷ Thus, this may compromise the formation of KP metabolites in vivo, in agreement with the reduced quinolinic acid formation in diet-induced FGR.⁷⁸ As major source of de novo NAD⁺ formation, such a deficiency may contribute to insufficient placental development. Yet, this is contradicted by the observation that concentrations of the NAD⁺ precursor, quinolinic acid, were similar between PE and healthy placentas.^5,10

Although in this review we specifically focused on tryptophan metabolism through the KP, it is important to acknowledge that KP alterations may also dysregulate the serotonin and melatonin pathways by changing tryptophan availability and aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation by kynurenine, and consequently affect mitochondrial function.^79,80 Indeed, melatonin and serotonin were suggested to have a role in the pathogenesis of depression during pregnancy, GDM, PE, and FGR as well.^19-24

Strengths and limitations

This study is the first to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge on variations of KP metabolites in complicated human pregnancies. Publication bias was limited by including all years of publication, performing quality assessment through the validated ErasmusAGE quality score,^27,28 and by contacting corresponding authors directly for any unreported data and additional details relevant for the synthesis of the results. However, some publication bias might have arisen from the inclusion of metabolomics studies, since our search strategy did not find metabolomics studies that did not identify discriminatory alterations in KP metabolites. As a second limitation, heterogeneity in investigated KP metabolites maternal pregnancy and fetal outcomes complicated clustering of—and making equivalent comparisons between—results, limiting the possibilities of performing a meta-analysis. Thirdly, the included studies did not distinguish between free and total (albumin bound) tryptophan concentrations, while free tryptophan is available for transport to the fetus. Neither were free fatty acid concentrations measured, which are known to increase free tryptophan concentrations. Lastly, none of the included studies corrected for blood sampling seasonality, while the season can affect KP metabolite concentrations in pregnant women.⁸¹

Conclusions and Implications

The KP might provide a diagnostically and therapeutically interesting target in complicated pregnancies, particularly in FGR where tryptophan seems to be decreased in both maternal and umbilical cord blood. Animal studies demonstrated that tryptophan supplementation improved embryo survival in mice exposed to pseudorabies virus-induced pregnancy failure,¹⁴ and fetal growth in ruminants,^15,16 potentially through the role of KP metabolites in bone remodeling.⁸² Furthermore, the development of hypertension in the pups of rats with experimental chronic kidney disease was prevented by supplementing these pregnant rats with tryptophan.¹⁷

Before starting tryptophan supplementation, however, it is important to first investigate its effects on other KP metabolites. Our study showed that elevated kynurenic acid concentrations were associated with PE en PPROM, which could have detrimental neurodevelopment effects on the offspring.^83-89 Thus, future studies should include longitudinal assessment of KP metabolites throughout (un)complicated pregnancies, and investigate the relation between KP metabolites in maternal and fetal blood.

Alterations in concentrations of KP metabolites do not necessarily correspond between maternal blood, fetal blood and placenta. Therefore, we believe it is time to revise the hypothesis that maternal KP metabolites reflect the placental KP and in particular placental IDO1 activity.

Kynurenic acid concentrations were elevated in maternal blood in PE and in the umbilical cord blood in PPROM, implying a potential pathological role for this KP metabolite. A decreased tryptophan concentration was observed in maternal blood in depression during pregnancy, GDM, FGR, PTB, and SA, and in fetal blood in FGR and PPROM, and was only found to be increased in PIH. Concurrently, the maternal concentration of kynurenine was lower in PIH and raised in GDM. Hence, while the flux of tryptophan through the KP seems enhanced in women with GDM, it may be attenuated in PIH. These data emphasize that physiological pregnancy requires a tight balance of KP metabolites, and that disturbances in either direction may be associated with adverse maternal pregnancy and fetal outcomes.

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-try-10.1177_11786469221135545 – Supplemental material for The Role of the Kynurenine Pathway in the (Patho) physiology of Maternal Pregnancy and Fetal Outcomes: A Systematic Review

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-try-10.1177_11786469221135545 for The Role of the Kynurenine Pathway in the (Patho) physiology of Maternal Pregnancy and Fetal Outcomes: A Systematic Review by Sofie KM van Zundert, Michelle Broekhuizen, Ashley JP Smit, Lenie van Rossem, Mina Mirzaian, Sten P Willemsen, AH Jan Danser, Yolanda B De Rijke, Irwin KM Reiss, Daphne Merkus and Régine PM Steegers-Theunissen in International Journal of Tryptophan Research

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-2-try-10.1177_11786469221135545 – Supplemental material for The Role of the Kynurenine Pathway in the (Patho) physiology of Maternal Pregnancy and Fetal Outcomes: A Systematic Review

Supplemental material, sj-docx-2-try-10.1177_11786469221135545 for The Role of the Kynurenine Pathway in the (Patho) physiology of Maternal Pregnancy and Fetal Outcomes: A Systematic Review by Sofie KM van Zundert, Michelle Broekhuizen, Ashley JP Smit, Lenie van Rossem, Mina Mirzaian, Sten P Willemsen, AH Jan Danser, Yolanda B De Rijke, Irwin KM Reiss, Daphne Merkus and Régine PM Steegers-Theunissen in International Journal of Tryptophan Research

Supplemental Material

sj-eps-3-try-10.1177_11786469221135545 – Supplemental material for The Role of the Kynurenine Pathway in the (Patho) physiology of Maternal Pregnancy and Fetal Outcomes: A Systematic Review

Supplemental material, sj-eps-3-try-10.1177_11786469221135545 for The Role of the Kynurenine Pathway in the (Patho) physiology of Maternal Pregnancy and Fetal Outcomes: A Systematic Review by Sofie KM van Zundert, Michelle Broekhuizen, Ashley JP Smit, Lenie van Rossem, Mina Mirzaian, Sten P Willemsen, AH Jan Danser, Yolanda B De Rijke, Irwin KM Reiss, Daphne Merkus and Régine PM Steegers-Theunissen in International Journal of Tryptophan Research

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Dr W.M. Bramer, biomedical information specialist, of the Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands, for his assistance with creating the search strategy and performing the search. In addition, the authors appreciate the willingness of the corresponding authors of the studies of Nazzari et al³⁵ and van Lee et al³⁴ to share their original raw data.

Funding:

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was funded by the Department of Clinical Chemistry of the Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests:

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Contributions

SZ and MB: acquisition, synthesis and interpretation of data, and writing of manuscript; AS: acquisition and synthesis of data; LR, MM, AD, YR, IR, DM, and RS: assistance with interpretation of data and manuscript edits. All authors have revised and approved the manuscript for publication.

Supplemental Material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

References

Bender

DA.

Biochemistry of tryptophan in health and disease. Mol Aspects Med. 1983;6:101-197.

Broekhuizen

Danser

AHJ

Reiss

IKM

Merkus

The function of the kynurenine pathway in the placenta: a novel pharmacotherapeutic target?

Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18:11545.

Badawy

AAB

. Kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism: regulatory and functional aspects. Int J Tryptophan Res. 2017;10:1178646917691938.

Badawy

AA.

The tryptophan utilization concept in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Sci. 2014;57:249-259.

Broekhuizen

Klein

Hitzerd

, et al. l-tryptophan-induced vasodilation is enhanced in preeclampsia: Studies on its uptake and metabolism in the human placenta. Hypertension. 2020;76:184-194.

Sedlmayr

Blaschitz

Stocker

The role of placental tryptophan catabolism. Front Immunol. 2014;5:230.

Munn

Zhou

Attwood

, et al. Prevention of allogeneic fetal rejection by tryptophan catabolism. Science. 1998;281:1191-1193.

Yamazaki

Kuroiwa

Takikawa

Kido

Human indolylamine 2,3-dioxygenase. Its tissue distribution, and characterization of the placental enzyme. Biochem J. 1985;230:635-638.

Zardoya-Laguardia

Blaschitz

Hirschmugl

, et al. Endothelial indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase-1 regulates the placental vascular tone and is deficient in intrauterine growth restriction and pre-eclampsia. Sci Rep. 2018;8:5488.

10.

Kudo

Boyd

Sargent

Redman

CW.

Decreased tryptophan catabolism by placental indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase in preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;188:719-726.

11.

Keaton

Heilman

Bryleva

, et al. Altered tryptophan catabolism in Placentas from women with pre-eclampsia. Int J Tryptophan Res. 2019;12:1178646919840321.

12.

Iwahashi

Yamamoto

Nanjo

Toujima

Minami

Ino

Downregulation of indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase expression in the villous stromal endothelial cells of placentas with preeclampsia. J Reprod Immunol. 2017;119:54-60.

13.

Schröcksnadel

Baier-Bitterlich

Dapunt

Wachter

Fuchs

Decreased plasma tryptophan in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1996;88:47-50.

14.

Qiu

Fang

Lin

Che

Tryptophan supplements promote pregnancy success in mice challenged with Pseudorabies Virus (PRV) by regulating the expression of systemic cytokines, immunoglobulins, PRV-specific protein profiles, and toll-like receptors. J Med Food. 2011;14:857-865.

15.

Lee

Ghassemi Nejad

Kim

Moon

Lee

HG.

Effects of dietary supplementation of acetate and L-tryptophan conjugated bypass amino acid on productivity of pre- and post-partum dairy cows and their offspring. Animals. 2021;11:1726.

16.

Zhang

Zhu

Song

Liu

Jia

Effects of rumen-protected tryptophan on growth performance, fibre characteristics, nutrient utilization and plasma essential amino acids in cashmere goats during the cashmere slow growth period. Livestock Sci. 2010;131:227-233.

17.

Hsu

Lin

Huang

Tiao

Tain

YL.

Maternal tryptophan supplementation protects adult rat offspring against hypertension programmed by maternal chronic kidney disease: implication of tryptophan-metabolizing microbiome and aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21:4552.

18.

Tsuji

Nakata

Sano

Fukuwatari

Shibata

L-tryptophan metabolism in pregnant mice fed a high L-tryptophan diet and the effect on maternal, placental, and fetal growth. Int J Tryptophan Res. 2013;6:21-33.

19.

Lanoix

Guérin

Vaillancourt

Placental melatonin production and melatonin receptor expression are altered in preeclampsia: new insights into the role of this hormone in pregnancy. J Pineal Res. 2012;53:417-425.

20.

Berbets

Barbe

Andriiets

Yuzko

OM.

Melatonin levels decrease in the umbilical cord in case of intrauterine growth restriction. J Med Life. 2020;13:548-553.

21.

de Melo

IMF

Ferreira

CGM

Alves

ÉR

, et al. Melatonin administration prevents placental and fetal changes induced by gestational diabetes. Reprod Sci. 2022;29:1111-1123.

22.

Martínez-Paredes

Jácome-Pérez

Depression in pregnancy depresión en el embarazo. Rev Colomb Psiquiatr (Engl Ed). 2019;48:58-65.

23.

Bolte

van Geijn

Dekker

GA.

Pharmacological treatment of severe hypertension in pregnancy and the role of serotonin(2)-receptor blockers. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2001;95:22-36.

24.

Ranzil

Ellery

Walker

, et al. Disrupted placental serotonin synthetic pathway and increased placental serotonin: potential implications in the pathogenesis of human fetal growth restriction. Placenta. 2019;84:74-83.

25.

Page

McKenzie

Bossuyt

, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021;372:n71.

26.

Stroup

Berlin

Morton

, et al. Meta-analysis of observational studies in epidemiology: a proposal for reporting. Meta-analysis of observational studies in Epidemiology (MOOSE) group. JAMA. 2000;283:2008-2012.

27.

Carter

Gray

Troughton

Khunti

Davies

MJ.

Fruit and vegetable intake and incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2010;341:c4229-c4229.

28.

Thomas

Ciliska

Dobbins

Micucci

A process for systematically reviewing the literature: providing the research evidence for public health nursing interventions. Worldviews Evid Based Nurs. 2004;1:176-184.

29.

Core Team. A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing; 2022. http://www.R-project.org/

30.

Balduzzi

Rücker

Schwarzer

How to perform a meta-analysis with R: a practical tutorial. Evid Based Ment Health. 2019;22:153-160.

31.

Sha

Madaj

Keaton

, et al. Cytokines and tryptophan metabolites can predict depressive symptoms in pregnancy. Transl Psychiatry. 2022;12:35.

32.

Keane

Khashan

McCarthy

, et al. Identifying a biological signature of prenatal maternal stress. JCI Insight. 2021;6:143007.

33.

Groer

Fuchs

Duffy

Louis-Jacques

D’Agata

Postolache

TT.

Associations among obesity, inflammation, and tryptophan catabolism in pregnancy. Biol Res Nurs. 2018;20:284-291.

34.

van Lee

Cai

Loy

, et al. Relation of plasma tryptophan concentrations during pregnancy to maternal sleep and mental well-being: the GUSTO cohort. J Affect Disord. 2018;225:523-529.

35.

Nazzari

Molteni

Valtorta

Comai

Frigerio

Prenatal IL-6 levels and activation of the tryptophan to kynurenine pathway are associated with depressive but not anxiety symptoms across the perinatal and the post-partum period in a low-risk sample. Brain Behav Immun. 2020;89:175-183.

36.

Teshigawara

Mouri

Kubo

, et al. Changes in tryptophan metabolism during pregnancy and postpartum periods: potential involvement in postpartum depressive symptoms. J Affect Disord. 2019;255:168-176.

37.

Scrandis

Langenberg

Tonelli

, et al. Prepartum depressive symptoms correlate positively with C-reactive protein levels and negatively with tryptophan levels: a preliminary report. Int J Child Health Hum Dev. 2008;1:167-174.

38.

McMichael

Heath

Johnson

, et al. Metabolites involved in purine degradation, insulin resistance, and fatty acid oxidation are associated with prediction of gestational diabetes in plasma. Metabolomics. 2021;17:105.

39.

Jiang

Fang

, et al. Amino acids levels in early pregnancy predict subsequent gestational diabetes. J Diabetes. 2020;12:503-511.

40.

Zheng

Zhong

Chen

, et al. Metabolic profiling of plasma in gestational diabetes mellitus using liquid chromatography and Q-TOF Mass spectrometry. Clin Lab. 2017;63:1045-1055.

41.

Leitner

Fragner

Danner

, et al. Combined metabolomic analysis of plasma and urine reveals AHBA, tryptophan and serotonin metabolism as potential risk factors in gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Front Mol Biosci. 2017;4:84.

42.

Nilsen

Bjørke-Monsen

Midttun

, et al. Maternal tryptophan and kynurenine pathway metabolites and risk of preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol. 2012;119:1243-1250.

43.

Jääskeläinen

Kärkkäinen

Jokkala

, et al. A non-targeted LC-MS metabolic profiling of pregnancy: longitudinal evidence from healthy and pre-eclamptic pregnancies. Metabolomics. 2021;17:20.

44.

Sander

Kim

Ortori

, et al. Untargeted analysis of plasma samples from pre-eclamptic women reveals polar and apolar changes in the metabolome. Metabolomics. 2019;15:157.

45.

Zhao

Zhou

Wei

, et al. Differential distribution of tryptophan-metabolites in fetal and maternal circulations during normotensive and preeclamptic pregnancies. Reprod Sci. 2022;29:1278-1286.

46.

Liu

Deng

Cui

, et al. Analysis of amino acid and acyl carnitine profiles in maternal and fetal serum from preeclampsia patients. J Matern -Fetal Neonatal Med. 2020;33:2743-2750.

47.

Dunn

Brown

Worton

, et al. Changes in the metabolic footprint of placental explant-conditioned culture medium identifies metabolic disturbances related to hypoxia and Pre-Eclampsia. Placenta. 2009;30:974-980.

48.

Ferranti

Frediani

Mitchell

, et al. Early pregnancy serum metabolite profiles associated with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy in African American Women: A Pilot Study. J Pregnancy. 2020;2020:1515321.

49.

Grafka

Łopucki

Karwasik-Kajszczarek

Stasiak-Kosarzycka

Dzida

Plasma concentration of tryptophan and pregnancy-induced hypertension. Arterial Hypertens. 2018;22:9-15.

50.

Valensise

Scartozzi

Gianantoni

, et al. Materno-fetal concentration of tryptophan and fetal behavioural states in normal and PIH pregnancies. Preliminary results. Clin Exp Hypertens Part B Hypertens Pregnancy. 1988;7:253-259.

51.

Di Giulio

Carelli

Castoldi

Gorio

Taricco

Cetin

Plasma amino acid concentrations throughout normal pregnancy and early stages of intrauterine growth restricted pregnancy. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2004;15:356-362.

52.

Robinson

Keski-Rahkonen

Chatzi

, et al. Cord blood metabolic signatures of birth weight: A population-based study. J Proteome Res. 2018;17:1235-1247.

53.

Moros

Boutsikou

Fotakis

, et al. Insights into intrauterine growth restriction based on maternal and umbilical cord blood metabolomics. Sci Rep. 2021;11:7824.

54.

Favretto

Cosmi

Ragazzi

, et al. Cord blood metabolomic profiling in intrauterine growth restriction. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2012;402:1109-1121.

55.

Cosmi

Visentin

Favretto

, et al. Selective intrauterine growth restriction in monochorionic twin pregnancies: Markers of endothelial damage and metabolomic profile. Twin Res Hum Genet. 2013;16:816-826.

56.

Milart

Urbanska

Turski

Paszkowski

Sikorski

Intrapartum levels of endogenous glutamate antagonist-kynurenic acid in amniotic fluid, umbilical and maternal blood. Neurosci Res Commun. 1999;24:173-178.

57.

Horgan

Broadhurst

Dunn

, et al. Changes in the metabolic footprint of placental explant-conditioned medium cultured in different oxygen tensions from placentas of small for gestational age and normal pregnancies. Placenta. 2010;31:893-901.

58.

Yin

Hou

Tian

Sun

Metabolomic profiling of plasma samples from women with recurrent spontaneous abortion. Med Sci Monit. 2018;24:4038-4045.

59.

Guzel

Cinar

Erkilinc

, et al. Association between adverse perinatal outcomes and amino acid levels measured with nutrient questionnaire in adolescent pregnancies. J Chin Med Assoc. 2016;79:335-339.

60.

Fei

Hou

, et al. Plasma metabolomic profile and potential biomarkers for missed abortion. Biomed Chromatogr. 2016;30:1942-1952.

61.

Virgiliou

Gika

Witting

, et al. Amniotic fluid and maternal serum metabolic signatures in the second trimester associated with preterm delivery. J Proteome Res. 2017;16:898-910.

62.

Lizewska

Teul

Kuc

, et al. Maternal plasma metabolomic profiles in spontaneous preterm birth: Preliminary results. Mediators Inflamm. 2018;2018:9362820.

63.

Manuelpillai

Ligam

Smythe

Wallace

Hirst

Walker

DW.

Identification of kynurenine pathway enzyme mRNAs and metabolites in human placenta: up-regulation by inflammatory stimuli and with clinical infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;192:280-288.

64.

Marteau

Bekker

The development of a six-item short-form of the state scale of the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Br J Clin Psychol. 1992;31:301-306.

65.

Stone

Perkins

MN.

Quinolinic acid: a potent endogenous excitant at amino acid receptors in CNS. Eur J Pharmacol. 1981;72:411-412.

66.

Guillemin

GJ.

Quinolinic acid, the inescapable neurotoxin. FEBS J. 2012;279:1356-1365.

67.

Maes

Leonard

Myint

Kubera

Verkerk

The new '5-HT' hypothesis of depression: cell-mediated immune activation induces indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, which leads to lower plasma tryptophan and an increased synthesis of detrimental tryptophan catabolites (TRYCATs), both of which contribute to the onset of depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2011;35:702-721.

68.

O’Mahony

Clarke

Borre

Dinan

Cryan

JF.

Serotonin, tryptophan metabolism and the brain-gut-microbiome axis. Behav Brain Res. 2015;277:32-48.

69.

Sampson

Mazmanian

SK.

Control of brain development, function, and behavior by the microbiome. Cell Host Microbe. 2015;17:565-576.

70.

Jiang

Ling

Zhang

, et al. Altered fecal microbiota composition in patients with major depressive disorder. Brain Behav Immun. 2015;48:186-194.

71.

Kaur

Bose

Mande

SS.

Tryptophan metabolism by gut microbiome and gut-brain-axis: an in silico analysis. Front Neurosci. 2019;13:1365.

72.

Lukić

Getselter

Koren

Elliott

Role of tryptophan in microbiota-induced depressive-like behavior: evidence from tryptophan Depletion Study. Front Behav Neurosci. 2019;13:123.

73.

Pantham

Aye

Powell

TL.

Inflammation in maternal obesity and gestational diabetes mellitus. Placenta. 2015;36:709-715.

74.

Karahoda

Robles

Marushka

, et al. Prenatal inflammation as a link between placental expression signature of tryptophan metabolism and preterm birth. Hum Mol Genet. 2021;30:2053-2067.

75.

Ban

Chang

Dong

Kong

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase levels at the normal and recurrent spontaneous abortion fetal-maternal interface. J Int Med Res. 2013;41:1135-1149.

76.

Kudo

Boyd

CA.

The role of L-tryptophan transport in L-tryptophan degradation by indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase in human placental explants. J Physiol. 2001;531:417-423.

77.

Murthi

Wallace

Walker

DW.

Altered placental tryptophan metabolic pathway in human fetal growth restriction. Placenta. 2017;52:62-70.

78.

Sano

Ferchaud-Roucher

Kaeffer

Poupeau

Castellano

Darmaun

Maternal and fetal tryptophan metabolism in gestating rats: Effects of intrauterine growth restriction. Amino Acids. 2016;48:281-290.

79.

Mazzoccoli

Kvetnoy

Mironova

, et al. The melatonergic pathway and its interactions in modulating respiratory system disorders. Biomed Pharmacother. 2021;137:111397.

80.

Anderson

Maes

Gut dysbiosis dysregulates central and systemic homeostasis via subop-timal mitochondrial function: assessment, treatment and classification implications. Curr Top Med Chem. 2020;20:524-539.

81.

Levitan

Sqapi

Atkinson

, et al. Seasonality of plasma tryptophan and kynurenine in pregnant mothers with a history of seasonal affective disorder: vulnerability or adaptation? World J Biol Psychiatr. 2020;21:529-538.

82.

Michalowska

Znorko

Kaminski

Oksztulska-Kolanek

Pawlak

New insights into tryptophan and its metabolites in the regulation of bone metabolism. J Physiol Pharmacol. 2015;66:779-791.

83.

Buck

Baratta

Pocivavsek

Exposure to elevated embryonic kynurenine in rats: sex-dependent learning and memory impairments in adult offspring. Neurobiol Learn Mem. 2020;174:107282.

84.

Rentschler

Baratta

Ditty

, et al. Prenatal kynurenine elevation elicits Sex-Dependent changes in sleep and arousal during adulthood: Implications for psychotic disorders. Schizophr Bull. 2021;47:1320-1330.

85.

Beggiato

Notarangelo

Sathyasaikumar

Giorgini

Schwarcz

Maternal genotype determines kynurenic acid levels in the fetal brain: Implications for the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. J Psychopharmacol. 2018;32:1223-1232.

86.

Baratta

Kanyuch

Cole

Valafar

Deslauriers

Pocivavsek

Acute sleep deprivation during pregnancy in rats: rapid elevation of placental and fetal inflammation and kynurenic acid. Neurobiol Stress. 2020;12:100204.

87.

Pershing

Phenis

Valentini

, et al. Prenatal kynurenine exposure in rats: age-dependent changes in NMDA receptor expression and conditioned fear responding. Psychopharmacology. 2016;233:3725-3735.

88.

Forrest

McNair

Pisar

Khalil

Darlington

Stone

TW.

Altered hippocampal plasticity by prenatal kynurenine administration, kynurenine-3-monoxygenase (KMO) deletion or galantamine. Neuroscience. 2015;310:91-105.

89.

Hahn

Reneski

Pocivavsek

Schwarcz

Prenatal kynurenine treatment in rats causes schizophrenia-like broad monitoring deficits in adulthood. Psychopharmacology. 2018;235:651-661.

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.03 MB

0.01 MB

2.40 MB