Decolonising the mainstream education and preserving Indigenous knowledge systems: learning through African Indigenous games

Abstract

The African Indigenous Games (AIG) previously contributed to children’s cognitive, physical, and societal development, deep-rooted in community values. Despite their contribution, the AIG have been excluded from teaching and learning in mainstream education. There is still little research on the decolonisation of mainstream education to accommodate the AIG. Thus, this study is premised on the African Renaissance theory, which offers insights into reviving the AIG through the decolonisation of mainstream education. Qualitative data was generated with four children, two youth, one Indigenous holder and one digitisation expert from Ga-Mamabolo in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. The data were generated through focus group discussions guided by an interview guide and participatory action research phases, namely planning, action, and reflection. The results reveal that through the decolonisation of mainstream education, the AIG may contribute to the existing curriculum, particularly in learning subjects such as Life Orientation, Creative Arts, Mathematics, and sports.

Keywords

African Indigenous games curriculum decolonisation mainstream education participatory action research

Introduction

African Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) in Africa, before colonisation, contributed to the intellectual, social, economic, and cultural development of Indigenous communities. In line with this, Aboagye (2021) noted that the IKS were considered a critical part of the Indigenous education, which the Indigenous people used to educate children about the most important aspects of life, such as togetherness, unity, and survival. Aboagye (2021) pointed out that this was because Indigenous education was the only education system the Indigenous people relied on for instilling important life lessons for survival in children. The advent of colonisation in Africa led to a decline in the participation of the IKS (Duncan, 2022). Thus, during this period, the IKS were replaced by the colonial or Western knowledge systems (WKS). This was the period that introduced Western education, deeming the IKS and Indigenous education as primitive and backwards (Mdhluli et al., 2021).

Despite living in the post-colonial era, Madima (2024) argues that the colonial effect is still present, as most of the Indigenous communities have little interest in their IKS while embracing the WKS. For example, Nevondo et al. (2024) noted that the WKS have gained immense interest among children and youth in most Indigenous communities. Madima (2024) posited that this interest has led to the gradual disappearance of the IKS, such as the AIG, which may lead to their extinction in Indigenous communities. The key contributing factor towards the disappearance of the IKS is that the knowledge is held by few, mostly elders; therefore, when passing away, the knowledge also passes away (Bogopa, 2012). Therefore, this disadvantages the upcoming generations, denying them an opportunity to participate and use the IKS. This is because once the knowledge disappears with the elders, it may be impossible or unlikely to regain it.

With IKS at the brink of extinction, there has been a call for reviving and preserving the IKS in the contemporary South African Indigenous communities. The drive towards preservation is for ensuring that the South African development is shaped by its IKS and not only WKS (Ntelezi et al., 2024). Nxumalo and Mncube (2019) added that IKS had previously shaped the lives of the Indigenous people in the past and may also be used to address some of the contemporary challenges faced by Africans through the involvement of IKS in mainstream education.

The South African government, through the IKS Act 6 of 2009, is also committed to regaining what was lost during the colonisation to rebuild and develop South Africa through the IKS. This is being emphasised by one of the key objectives of the IKS Act 6 of 2009, which categorically states that South Africa, through the act, seeks to ‘promote public awareness and understanding of Indigenous knowledge for the wider population and development.’ Despite the commitments to promote the IKS in the country, there have not been enough efforts to ensure that the children in contemporary South Africa have enough access to their IKS. The works of Nevondo et al. (2024) show that colonial influence still exists in present-day Africa, limiting the use of IKS in areas such as oral tradition.

To move away from the colonial effect, Kishore et al. (2022) indicated that Africa, with South Africa included, needs to re-learn, redefine and re-establish itself as a continent that shapes its development through IKS, which Madima (2024) refers to as decolonisation. The term decolonisation may be easily misinterpreted as removing all the WKS in Africa. Thus, some of the works of Higgs (2016) have highlighted that it is practically impossible to replace the WKS as they play an important role in the lives of Africans. In that regard, Ndlovu and Gumbo (2024) see decolonisation as a way of integrating the IKS with the WKS to provide the current and subsequent generations the opportunity to learn about their IKS and use it as part of development.

Gumbo et al. (2022) posit that decolonisation can be a long process; however, education can be the first area that can be decolonised for effective preservation of the IKS for posterity. Higgs (2016) noted that the current mainstream education in South Africa is dominated by the WKS with little to no consideration of the IKS. Thus, Nxumalo and Mncube (2019) argued that modern education plays a critical role in the development of children; therefore, by decolonising education, the aim is not to replace the existing curriculum or modern education with the IKS content but to ensure that the IKS be used as part of African development, commencing from the mainstream education. Despite the intention to integrate the IKS into mainstream education, there is a continuous decline in the IKS in most African Indigenous communities (Nevondo et al., 2024). Thus, studies such as Mosimege (2020), Nxumalo and Mncube (2019), Hadebe-Ndlovu, and Matsekoleng et al. (2024) have alluded that the African Indigenous games (AIG) carry rich knowledge that may be useful in mainstream education in the fields of mathematics, environment, and socialisation. In that regard, this paper builds on these studies by demonstrating how the decolonisation of mainstream education can contribute to the sustainable preservation and active participation of the AIG through the lens of Ga-Mamabolo Indigenous communities in Limpopo Province, South Africa.

Methods

Participatory action research

The study employed qualitative research methodology framed on a participatory action research (PAR) approach. The PAR is described as a research approach that is centred on tackling social problems through collaboration with the people affected by the problem (Cornish et al., 2023; Snapp et al., 2023). French and Curd (2022) posited that the PAR allows researchers to intensively research the problem with people rather than researching about them. Fine et al. (2021) augmented that the primary role of PAR is in the co-creation of new knowledge, with people taking co-ownership of the research along with the researcher. In the context of this study, the researchers employed this approach because of its ability to allow the Indigenous people to take ownership, leadership, and decisions to solve the existing social problems in their communities. Cornish et al. (2023) stated that in a PAR, the researchers form a research team with the people who take part in the research as co-researchers. Thus, in this study, the word ‘co-researchers’ was used to refer to the study participants. In the context of this study, the Indigenous people who formed part of the research team were Bapedi Indigenous people from Ga-Mamabolo. Ga-Mamabolo forms part of the Polokwane Local Municipality under the Capricorn District Municipality in the Limpopo province. Ga-Mamabolo consists of many Indigenous communities under the traditional leadership of the Mamabolo clan. For purposes of this study, only five Indigenous communities, including Spitzkop, Mentz, Mongwaneng, Thune, and Turfloop, were selected to be part of the research team. These communities were used in the study because they are part of Ga-Mamabolo Indigenous communities possessing rich knowledge about the AIGs. In addition, they were selected because of their proximity to each other, which made the data generation process convenient to the researchers.

African renaissance

The African Renaissance theory (ART) has been argued by most African Indigenous scholars and theorists as a key model that prioritises the development of Africa, shaped by the IKS (Ned, 2022). As first introduced by Cheick Anta Diop in 1946, the ART contends that African Indigenous communities lost most of their important IKS during the colonial period of which needs to be invigorated in the postcolonial era and be used as part of African development. Put simply by Mawere and Tshamano (2023), the ART advises that the African Indigenous communities revive and incorporate IKS in their daily lives.

The AIG, along with other IKS, have negatively declined during the colonial era, and this colonial effect is still evident in the present Africa (Mdhluli et al., 2021). In that regard, the Indigenous and education scholars such as Mosimege (2020) and Higgs (2012) have established that the call for decolonisation of education in Africa is to rethink and establish education with an African identity. In support of ART and decolonisation of education, Opoku and James (2021) pointed out that education in Africa is full of WKS; therefore, decolonisation comes as an opportunity to revive and preserve the IKS. Opoku and James (2021) further argued that the IKS have been significant in the lives of the Indigenous people for survival; therefore, such knowledge may need to be revived and taught in schools, as it may help in addressing most of the contemporary issues faced by Africa.

In the context of this study, the ART was employed to contest that the AIG, as part of the IKS, are slowly disappearing; therefore, it may need to be revived and preserved from becoming extinct. In other words, the application of the ART in this study was anchored on the decolonisation of South African education by incorporating the AIG into the school curriculum. The study contends that the education system or curriculum in South Africa reflects less of the AIG; therefore, the Department of Basic Education (DBE) may need to consider incorporating the AIG into the curriculum to effectively preserve the games and ensure their sustainable preservation.

Recruitment methods

To generate qualitative data, eight Indigenous community members were recruited to take part in this study as co-researchers (Table 1). The study was conducted in Bapedi Indigenous communities located in Polokwane Local Municipality under Capricorn District Municipality in the Limpopo province of South Africa. Therefore, we applied the Indigenous recruitment methods that were relevant to the Indigenous communities. The primary recruitment method we employed was Kgoro, which is known as a traditional court system (Rammala et al., 2023). This method was primarily employed first as a community entry and seeking permission to conduct the study from the traditional leadership. However, when requested to attend a Kgoro to explain the purpose, benefits, and the need to engage the Indigenous communities under the traditional leadership of Ga-Mamabolo, the principal researcher managed to recruit some of the co-researchers. From Kgoro, two elderly Indigenous knowledge holders (IKHs) were recruited; however, one (IKH) withdrew before the commencement of the data collection process; therefore, only one IKH was available to complete the data generation process. In addition, we employed a convenient recruitment method to recruit four high school children (HSC) and two youth based on their willingness and readiness to participate in the study. Finally, a digitisation expert was purposively recruited based on their vast experience in digitisation and decoloniality.

Table 1.

Co-researchers.

Co-researchers	Category	Age	Gender	Indigenous Community
1. Co-researcher 1	Indigenous knowledge holder	43	Male	Spitzkop
2. Co-researcher 2	Youth	27	Male	Mentz
3. Co-researcher 3	Youth	28	Female	Spitzkop
4. Co-researcher 4	Digitisation expert	28	Male	Turfloop
5. Co-researcher 5	High school child	16	Female	Mongwaneng
6. Co-researcher 6	High school child	17	Male	Spitzkop
7. Co-researcher 7	High school child	17	Female	Thune
8. Co-researcher 8	High school child	17	Male	Mongwaneng

The co-researchers included in this study were recruited based on their background relevant to the study. Thus, the high school children were recruited based on the knowledge about teaching and learning

Data generation and analysis

Snapp et al. (2023) stated that PAR is a continuous process for data generation centred mainly on three phases, namely planning, action, and reflection. In that regard, we co-generated the data with the co-researchers using the three phases guided by the focus group discussions (FGDs). The FGDs were guided by an interview guide as the data generation instrument. Therefore, the research questions from the interview guide included the following: a) What is the significance of decolonising the mainstream education? b) Which grades can benefit from the inclusion of AIG in the mainstream education? c) Which subjects can accommodate the AIG as part of the decolonisation process? d) What are the sustainable approaches towards preservation and management of the AIG in mainstream education? During planning, as the first phase, introductions of the co-researchers were made, and this also involved the purpose of the study and explanation of key terms such as IKS, mainstream education, decolonisation, digitisation, and AIGs. As part of the first phase, the co-researchers focused mainly on planning by outlining the objectives and desired goals that can be implemented to decolonise mainstream education and using AIG as part of learning and teaching. These objectives, outlined in the first phase, included the following:

To determine the significance of decolonising mainstream education.

To identify grades that can benefit from the inclusion of AIG in the mainstream education.

To identify subjects that can accommodate the AIG.

To establish sustainable approaches towards the preservation and management of the AIG in mainstream education.

In the second phase, the co-researchers engaged in a discussion guided by the objectives outlined in the first phase, using an interview guide. The last phase included reflections on the decisions taken in phases one and two. This included reflecting on whether the objectives have been met or not. In other words, as part of the data generation process, the reflection phase included reflecting on whether the data generated has met the satisfaction of the co-researchers, looking at the objectives.

The co-generated data from the three phases were analysed using critical discourse analysis (CDA). CDA is described as a qualitative analysis method centred on constant examination and review of the transcribed texts to understand and disclose the bases of power, dominance and inequality (Wodak, 2022). The application of the CDA in this study was grounded in understanding the areas of dominance over the AIG in mainstream education. To analyse the data, the researchers made recordings of the discussions, and the recordings were transcribed for analysis purposes. The transcribed data were thoroughly reviewed multiple times in line with the research objectives outlined during the planning phase. To generate the categories, numerous category codes were generated to identify frequently used ideas and keywords. This was followed by the organisation of the coded data into categories based on the research objectives.

Ethical considerations

The study was conducted in consideration of several ethics that ensured the protection of the Indigenous communities, co-researchers, and the researchers. Therefore, before data generation, the study was granted ethical clearance approval at the Department of IKS and Heritage Studies from the university’s Research Ethics Committee. The study included high school children; therefore, permission was sought by the researchers and granted by the Department of Basic Education (DBE). The researchers were aware of the existing Indigenous ethics; therefore, before generating data with the co-researchers, permission to conduct the study was sought from the Mankweng Traditional Council that governs Ga-Mamabolo Indigenous communities included in this study. Brear and Tsotetsi (2021) state that minors in South Africa are those under the age of 18; therefore, anyone underage requires permission from their parents or legal guardians before participating in any study. The researchers were aware of the involvement of minors in the study; therefore, informed consent was sought from the four minors’ parents or legal guardians. Although the parents signed and agreed for the children to take part in the study, assent was also sought from the four children. To ensure the protection of the co-researchers, particularly the minors, the data generation process took place in the school premises of the minors during winter recess or holidays to ensure the safety of the co-researchers, particularly children. To ensure that the study ensures privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity, the researchers did not collect personal data such as the names of the co-researchers or where they live. In addition, through the informed consent forms, the researchers explained to the co-researchers that the data to be generated will be analysed anonymously. Therefore, pseudonyms were used to protect the co-researchers’ real names while maintaining confidentiality.

Results

The study was analysed using the CDA. Therefore, the results are presented below using the key categories from the analysis.

Why decolonisation of mainstream education matters?

The co-researchers opined that participation in AIG has abruptly declined in Ga-Mamabolo Indigenous communities. According to the co-researchers, a key contributing factor towards the decline in the AIG is that youth and children are the main players of the AIG, but unfortunately, they spend most of their time in schools, which gives them little to no time to participate in the AIG. With children and youth spending most of their time in schools, the co-researchers outlined that there is a need to decolonise mainstream education by integrating it with the AIG. According to the co-researchers, the current challenge facing the AIG is that they are gradually disappearing; therefore, integrating the AIG into mainstream education will come as an opportunity for the Indigenous communities to preserve the AIG and simultaneously increase their participation.

Most of the children spend most of their time in schools, and you would find out that they never get a time to participate in moruba [Indigenous game] or diketo [Indigenous game]. So, the way I see it, it would be beneficial for our children in the community if they get to learn about these games because not many people still remember or participate in them. [Co-researcher 1, Indigenous knowledge holder]

The co-researchers further made a point that decolonising AIG goes beyond knowledge preservation and participation. In particular, the co-researchers highlighted that mainstream education may benefit from the AIG as they vastly contribute to child development.

If we are able to include the Indigenous games in the school curriculum, we will then be able to preserve the games for our children who are still coming. I think this will be the most important for children because if children can participate in Indigenous games like sports, they will be able to gain the physical and mental development that comes from these games. (Co-researcher 3, Youth)

African Indigenous games into mainstream education

The co-researchers noted that mainstream education does not cater for the AIG as part of the lessons offered to children or learners. According to the co-researchers, mainstream education has been neglecting the AIG and other IKS as part of teaching and learning. The co-researchers indicated that the exclusion of the AIG in mainstream education has been influenced by the history of the country. From the perspective of one of the co-researchers who is an Indigenous knowledge holder, South Africa has experienced harsh laws under the colonial government that prohibited the free practice of the IKS, including the AIG. It was from this perspective that the co-researchers noted that the AIG are still excluded from the mainstream education, which can be linked with the history of the country.

Back in the old days of apartheid, the Indigenous knowledge was not included in the school curriculum because the laws they put did not favour the Indigenous communities. Now things are different, and we must shape the education of our children using our Indigenous knowledge because I can still see that even the Indigenous games we are talking about are not promoted in schools and yet they are part of our culture. (Co-researcher 1, Indigenous knowledge holder)

Thus, the co-researchers revealed that not every subject can accommodate the AIG. In that regard, the youth and child co-researchers outlined that mainstream education is offered in three phases, which can assist in delineating the subjects suitable for accommodating the AIG (Figure 1). The co-researchers further outlined that the AIG can be regarded as sports; therefore, from all the phases of education, the games may be adopted into education as part of sports activities.

Figure 1.

Proposed school subjects (Credit: Authors).

Sports are part of our curriculum from the foundation to the senior phase. I therefore think we must also think of the Indigenous games as sports where children could participate. When children participate in these games in schools, they will grow up praising our Indigenous games rather than forgetting them. (Co-researcher 7, High school child)

If I can add from her, the Indigenous games can be made compulsory from grade 1 to grade 12. (Co-researcher 5, High school child)

Deducing from the above discussion from the co-researchers, it can be noted that the 3 phases of the mainstream education are categorised as the Foundation Phase (Grade 0-3), Intermediate Phase (Grade 4-9), and Senior Phase (Grade 10-12). According to the co-researchers, many subjects can be identified from these phases. Therefore, subjects such as Life Orientation, Creative Arts and Mathematics are outlined as suitable subjects for teaching and learning the AIG.

The subjects that I am thinking of right now are Life Orientation. I do not know if you still have it. We can have children participate in the games physically or learn about them during the Life Orientation class. (Co-researcher 3, Youth)

We have the Creative Arts, I think maybe we can also think of putting the Indigenous games there because they all form part of the Arts. (Co-researcher 6, High school child)

Let’s not forget children, I think in primary schools, subjects like Life Skills and Mathematics can help the children connect or learn basic mathematics through the Indigenous games like diketo [Indigenous game] and morabaraba [Indigenous game]. (Co-researcher 8, High school child)

Sustainable Indigenous knowledge transfer in mainstream education

The integration of the AIG into mainstream education was seen by the co-researchers as not enough for decolonisation. Thus, the co-researchers revealed that for effective Indigenous knowledge transfer, mainstream education may need to adopt diverse strategies to ensure that children and youth efficiently participate and learn in the AIG.

It is very important that we ask ourselves important questions, like what is next after adding the Indigenous games into education. The way I see it, the Department of Basic Education and the Department of Sport, Arts and Culture will have to start strategies that will make sure that our children continue to participate in the Indigenous games. (Co-researcher 2, Youth)

The co-researchers outlined that in the contemporary Indigenous communities, the digital AIG have become common. In that regard, the co-researchers pointed out that digitisation has become fashionable in the field of education; therefore, it can be used in Indigenous communities to increase participation in AIG. Digital skills were observed by the co-researchers as important skills children may need in this contemporary era. To ensure that children participate in the AIG, the co-researchers highlighted that the Department of Basic Education (DBE) and the Department of Sport, Arts, and Culture (DSAC) should consider providing schools in Indigenous communities with digital gadgets such as laptops and tablets with pre-installed digital AIG. The co-researchers believed that this approach has a higher chance of sustainably preserving the AIG for a lengthy period while simultaneously providing children with digital literacy and skills. This was echoed by one of the co-researchers, who said this:

Maybe we need to think beyond the main players in Education. If we are being honest, the Department of Sport, Arts and Culture can work with the Department of Basic Education to provide Indigenous communities with the tablets. Some of the Indigenous games, like morabaraba [Indigenous game], are already digital; it is up to our government to make sure that children learn about the Indigenous games using these tablets because they have become common in private schools. (Co-researcher 3, Youth)

The co-researchers further outlined that in contemporary Indigenous communities, the digital libraries have become an indispensable tool for preserving the IKS. Thus, the establishment of digital libraries in schools was outlined by the co-researchers as an approach that may allow the AIG to be digitally preserved and stored for easy access, along with other IKS. The co-researchers indicated that most of the schools in Ga-Mamabolo have little to no digital libraries. The co-researchers outlined a digital library as an internet-connected room or space that holds laptops used for accessing digital materials online. Therefore, the co-researchers revealed that digital libraries may enable children in the Indigenous communities to access digital AIG in the libraries, particularly children who have little access to digital gadgets.

From what I know, local digital libraries can also be very important to preserve the Indigenous games. Imagine if we could have a digital library in schools, many children would access the digital Indigenous games in these libraries if they cannot afford the gadgets. (Co-researcher 4, Digitisation Expert)

The co-researchers revealed that the main purpose of the AIG may be to establish social cohesion in schools, particularly those located in Indigenous communities. In that regard, the co-researchers indicated that schools may need to host the AIG competitions to allow children to compete with others from different schools. The co-researchers indicated that the competition would assist in maintaining the authentic nature of the games compared to the digital formats.

There is something I think we must not forget. You see the Indigenous games; they are very entertaining if you are competing in open spaces where people are watching. I was thinking that maybe the schools may need to organise an Indigenous games competition with other schools. I think this will allow further engagement in the Indigenous games. (Co-researcher 2, Youth)

Discussion

The co-researchers have described that the current education system or curriculum is dominated by Western ideologies with little to no inclusion of the IKS. Part of the exclusion of the IKS from the games can be attributed to the colonial history of South Africa, where the IKS were considered outmoded and evil (Higgs, 2012; Lebakeng, 2011; Mdhluli et al., 2021). In that regard, the mainstream education in South Africa was based on Western ideologies with no consideration of the IKS (Lebakeng, 2011). Although we live in a post-colonial era, the co-researchers in this study observed that this colonial effect persists in the contemporary era and mainstream education. They noted that mainstream education includes minimal representation of the AIG, despite these games being highly valued within Indigenous communities for child development.

Education and Indigenous scholars such as Higgs (2016), Nxumalo and Mncube (2019) are advocating for the decolonisation of education, which is not to replace the existing curriculum but to think beyond what education may look like from the perspectives of the Indigenous people. The co-researchers in this study suggested that decolonisation, from their perspective, is not to replace the existing curriculum but to give it an African identity through the inclusion of the AIG. Madima (2024) contested that participation in the AIG has contemporarily declined in most Indigenous communities, which puts the games at risk of extinction. To avoid this risk, several studies such as Mosimege (2020), Hadebe-Ndlovu (2022) and Matsekoleng et al. (2024) have called for the inclusion of the AIG into mainstream education. The results in this study point out that children are the key players of the AIG; however, they spend most of their time in schools, which gives them little time to participate in the games. In that regard, the results indicate that the inclusion of the AIG into mainstream education will assist the Indigenous communities to preserve their AIG and simultaneously increase their participation. These findings are in line with the African Renaissance theory (ART), which recommends that South African Indigenous communities revive the AIG and make it part of the African development, which in this study is through the integration of the AIG in the mainstream education.

The results indicate that the benefits of including the AIG in mainstream education have been centred on the benefits of participating in them. The benefits discovered by the study were the physical and mental development of the children. These results mirror Mncube and Hadebe-Ndlovu’s (2023) results, who revealed that the AIG has the potential to establish the elements of Ubuntu, such as compassion for one another and togetherness in schools.

Due to multiple learning subjects offered in South African schools, the results show that not all subjects can accommodate the AIG. In that regard, Mathematics, Life Orientation, Creative Arts, together with sports, were revealed by the study as the fundamental subjects suitable for accommodating the AIG. The previous works of Hadebe-Ndlovu (2022), Mwinza and Dagada (2024) indicated that the foundation phase (Grade 0-3) is a critical phase of education that allows children to develop key skills such as communication, reading, and counting; therefore, the AIG may be used to transfer these skills to the learners. In addition, Mosimege (2020) contested that the AIG were previously used by the Indigenous communities for counting, which can also be helpful in the intermediate and senior phases.

To ensure the sustainable preservation and educational use of the AIG, the results point to digital libraries and school competitions as the key approaches that may be adopted. The recent studies from Madima. (2024) and Laiti (2025) have established that the digitisation of AIG has become common in Indigenous communities; therefore, the use of the digital AIG may help establish digital skills in Indigenous communities. Similarly to this study, it was discovered that the establishment of digital libraries in schools located in Indigenous communities may allow them to easily access, participate, and learn about the AIG and simultaneously obtain the digital skills that are necessary in the contemporary era, fuelled by digitisation. The co-researchers recommended that the DBE adopt the AIG as a sport and enable competition among schools. These findings further mirror the principle of the ART, which advocates that South African Indigenous communities have a mainstream education that resembles Africanness and the importance of the AIG as part of learning. This implies that the mainstream education in South Africa may be decolonised not only by replacing the content that is being taught but also by using the mainstream education as another way of preserving the AIG.

Implications

The findings have established that in contemporary Indigenous communities, children spend most of their time in schools, leading to poor participation in the AIG, despite these games playing a critical role in the social, cognitive, and physical development of children. Thus, the findings of this study contribute to the decolonisation of mainstream education in South Africa, guided by preserving and increasing participation in the AIG. In addition, the findings may also contribute to the body of knowledge in the field of decolonising mainstream education as part of the African Renaissance and recognition of the IKS in the development of South Africa. Therefore, the findings have established that decolonisation of the mainstream education may need to be reviewed to provide the mainstream education with an Afrocentric identity. This also implies that the findings of this study may also be used in establishing and refining policies about the inclusion of the AIG and other IKS in decolonising mainstream education.

Conclusion and recommendations

The call for decolonising the mainstream education was outlined by this study as an opportunity to preserve and increase participation of the AIG. Therefore, the study has indicated that decoloniality will not come as a replacement for the current mainstream education, but rather to create an opportunity for preserving the AIG through teaching and learning. Despite the AIG being vital for teaching and learning, the study has unveiled that not all learning subjects can accommodate the AIG; therefore, Mathematics, Life Orientation, Creative Arts, and sports were discovered to be the suitable subjects depending on the phase, that is foundation, intermediate, and senior. Therefore, this study has the following recommendations:

Development of AIG-centred content

The DBE should consider developing and integrating an AIG-centred content into the existing curriculum (Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement), tailored to increase learning and participation in the AIG. The development and integration process may be led by relevant key stakeholders such as the DBE, teachers, and the Indigenous knowledge holders who have expertise in AIG.

Pilot the AIG

The integration of the AIG into mainstream education may not occur without challenges; therefore, this study recommends the DBE pilot integration. This will allow the DBE to be able to identify strengths and weaknesses of the integration before the full implementation of the AIG into mainstream education.

The long-term impact

Further research may be needed to assess the long-term impact of the AIG and other Indigenous knowledge systems on mainstream education.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge the Mankgweng Traditional Council for granting me an opportunity to engage the Indigenous communities under their leadership. We acknowledge Principal Mabule and her Deputy Principal, Tshiloane, for trusting us to work with the school children under their care and guidance. We acknowledge the parents of the children for granting us consent to work with their children. We finally acknowledge all the co-researchers who willingly participated and committed themselves to taking part in this study.

Authors’ note

Glen Maimela is a Master of Arts in African studies graduate from the University of Venda the Department of Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Heritage Studies. As an Indigenous scholar, Glen’s work is mostly centred on decoloniality, Indigenous knowledge systems, participatory action research, and digitisation. He is currently working as a Research Assistant at the National Heritage Council of South Africa.

Rudzani Nedombeloni is currently a Sociology PhD candidate from the University of Venda at the Department of Arts and Social Sciences. Rudzani’s work passion is centred on governance of common-pool resources, food security, and Indigenous knowledge systems. She is currently a Programme Officer for Climate Change, Environment and Energy at the Academy of Science of South Africa (ASSAF).

ORCID iD

Glen Maimela

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article: The study was funded by the National Research Foundation (NRF) – Masters and Doctoral Scholarship.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and publication of this article.

Glossary

Diketo Indigenous game

Kgoro Traditional Court System

Morabaraba Indigenous game

Moruba Indigenous game

Ubuntu South African philosophy

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