Endaayaang: the importance of “Indigenizing” housing first for youth

Abstract

This article explores Endaayaang, which means a safe place where the heart and spirit feel at home, an Indigenous Housing First for Youth programme, located in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. The programme is informed by Elders, Traditional Knowledge Holders, Indigenous youth and Indigenous frontline workers and is grounded in Indigenous knowledges and worldviews. The programme helps unhoused Indigenous youth secure, safe and affordable housing, without preconditions. A unique aspect of this programme is creating opportunities for Indigenous youth to (re)connect to their Indigenous identity and culture. This includes providing access to Elders, ceremony and Indigenous teachings to help them find their way home. This research highlights the integral role of helping Indigenous youth (re)connect with their Indigenous identity and the importance of integrating ceremony, and Indigenous principles into Indigenous Housing First for youth programming. We also present an argument about the importance of diversifying and indigenizing Housing First for Youth in Canada to meet the specific needs of Indigenous and other marginalized and racialized populations accessing programming.

Introduction

This article explores Endaayaang, a safe place where the heart and spirit feel at home, an Indigenous-led Housing First for youth (HF4Y) programme, in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, and the importance of building programming centred on Indigenous cultures, access to Elders, ceremonies and teachings. HF4Y is a rights-based homelessness intervention, without preconditions, designed specifically for youth between 16 and 24 who are exiting systems such as Child Protection Services, Justice, Healthcare, or youth whose personal safety may be at risk. It focuses on providing safe, affordable and barrier-free housing while providing age-appropriate support and life skills training for youth (Gaetz et al., 2021; Green et al., 2018). Endaayaang, as an Indigenous HF4Y programme, is not just unique because it is Indigenous-led; it is distinct because of the integral involvement of Indigenous principles and philosophies, Traditional Knowledge Holders, Elders, access to ceremony and helping youth to (re)connect to their culture through culturally based programming, approaches and activities. This initiative is offered through the Hamilton Regional Indian Centre in Hamilton, Ontario Canada.

While acknowledging that Indigenous youth homelessness is a complex issue impacted by multiple factors, both historic and ongoing, Endaayaang highlights the importance of self-empowerment through strengths-based programming that embeds access to Traditional Knowledge Holders, Elders, ceremony and cultural teachings to guide the programme to help youth find their way home. Another critical feature of this programme is helping Indigenous youth strengthen or begin their connection to their Indigenous identity if they so choose (Naidoo et al., in press). Reconnecting young people to their Indigenous identities through (re)connection to culture, community and ceremony helps youth re-story their lives from a strengths-based perspective by learning where they come from and the historical factors that may have impacted where they are today (Gabriel et al., 2022). In this article, we explore the role of cultural supports, such as connections to Traditional Knowledge Holders, Elders, access to ceremony and teachings, such as the Circle of Courage, Seven Grandfather Teachings and the Medicine Wheel, all of which are fundamental principles of Endaayaang. This article contributes to the conversation on the importance of Indigenous-led and informed housing and homelessness prevention programming for Indigenous youth and the vital importance of indigenizing housing and homelessness prevention programming more broadly (Green et al., 2018; Lawson-Te Aho et al., 2019). We also suggest here that Endaayaang provides an example of the importance of diversifying and Indigenizing HF4Y programming more generally for Indigenous youth and other marginalized and racialized groups. However, further research is needed to provide support for expanding the reach of this programme approach.

Context

There is an overrepresentation of Indigenous youth among Canadian homeless youth populations across the country (Barker et al., 2014; Gabriel et al., 2022; Kidd et al., 2019). Research illustrates that Indigenous youths’ pathways to homelessness may differ significantly compared with those of non-Indigenous youth because of their histories, ongoing systemic discrimination, impacts of intergenerational trauma, socioeconomic inequities and lack of affordable housing (Bingham et al., 2019). Indigenous youth who are unhoused are also even more vulnerable to violence, incarceration, and are at increased risk of becoming involved in human trafficking (Kidd et al., 2019).

In this article, we use the term Indigenous, which refers to three unique Indigenous cultural groups across Canada: First Nations, Inuit (an Indigenous cultural group in Canada whose homeland is known as Inuit Nunangat, which encompasses the Arctic regions, Alaska and Greenland) and Métis (an Indigenous cultural group in Canada that have European and Indigenous ancestry) Peoples (FNIM). The term Indigenous Peoples is frequently used in an international context as well to refer to Indigenous cultures globally. The term Indigenous acknowledges both commonalities and the diversity of cultures, histories, teachings, languages, and experiences that comprises Indigenous populations worldwide (Stewart, 2018). Indigenous youth are defined within the scope of the Endaayaang programme, as those who are between the ages 16 and 24. We also draw on Thistle’s (2017) definition of Indigenous homelessness which helps contextualize the specificities of Indigenous homelessness. He conceptualizes Indigenous homelessness as not just

lacking a structure of habitation; rather, it is more fully described and understood through a composite lens of Indigenous worldviews. These include individuals, families and communities isolated from their relationships to land, water, place, family, kin, each other, animals, cultures, languages and identities. Importantly, Indigenous people experiencing these kinds of homelessness cannot culturally, spiritually, emotionally or physically reconnect with their Indigeneity or lost relationships. (Thistle, 2017, p. 6)

Endaayaang takes an upstream strengths-based approach to fighting and preventing homelessness for Indigenous youth, through the infusion of Indigenous ceremony and culture that takes into account Thistle’s (2017) definition on Indigenous homelessness. The focus on Indigenous-led programming at Endaayaang is crucial for several reasons. For starters, many Indigenous youths’ mental health has been profoundly impacted by historical factors related to brutal colonization and assimilation strategies employed by the state over centuries that are beyond their control. This includes, but is not limited to, child welfare apprehension, the residential school system, and the ongoing impact of intergenerational trauma (Barker et al., 2014; Gabriel et al., 2022; Sinclair, 2017; Stewart, 2018). These factors require an approach to understanding and addressing Indigenous youth homelessness that takes these realities into account.

It is important to note that progressive efforts to support homeless youth in Canada do exist outside of Endaayaang. For example, HF4Y is a notable and effective model to address the complex challenges of youth homelessness in Canada for other populations (Bonakdar et al., 2023). These programme interventions are meant to be preventive and aim to move youth out of homelessness quickly, without preconditions. A range of housing options and supports are included so that youth can “maintain housing, learn life skills, have positive relationships with peers and adults, and re-engage with school and employment” (Gaetz et al., 2016, p. 13; Green et al., 2018). Such approaches aim to reduce the risk of young people ever becoming homeless again. Unfortunately, such models, centred on mainstream notions of prevention, are very few and can only be found in small pockets through the work of community-based organizations across the country (Mirza, 2021; Schwan et al., 2018).

Despite these successes, it is important to draw attention to some of the potential shortcomings of the Housing First for Youth programme, particularly in the Indigenous context (Lawson-Te Aho et al., 2019). For example, Lawson-Te Aho et al. (2019) argue that in the Māori (Indigenous Peoples of New Zealand) context, a broader and more wholistic Indigenous understanding of homelessness is required to address Indigenous homelessness and prevention one that takes into consideration attachment to land and culture while also supporting self-determination. They also call for the need to not only decolonize Indigenous homelessness and prevention initiatives but to re-Indigenize housing and programming. This refers to reclaiming and reasserting local Indigenous knowledges and values into programming (Lawson-Te Aho et al., 2019), something Endaayaang provides an example of. Although Indigenous Peoples’ history in the land now known as Canada have different specificities than Māori, as discussed by Lawson-Te Aho et al. (2019), we can draw key parallels based on their commonalities. This includes, but is not limited to, deeply rooted interconnections with land and place, which must be considered in Indigenous homelessness and prevention interventions.

Given the lack of Indigenous youth–specific approaches to housing, Indigenous youth programming underpinned by an awareness of Indigenous histories programming informed by Indigenous knowledges and principles is needed (Stewart, 2018). This article contributes to the research highlighting the importance of placing intentional Indigenous cultural programming at the forefront of Indigenous youth homelessness and homelessness prevention services and programming. We draw on 16 semi-structured narrative interviews conducted in 2021, with participants who are directly connected to Endaayaang. The interviews illustrate the role and benefit of placing Indigenous-led cultural programming at the heart of Endaayaang.

Indigenous concepts of homelessness and home

Concepts of home and homelessness in many Indigenous cultures tend to differ from the more standard definitions (Thistle, 2017), yet understandings and approaches to addressing homelessness in Canada often overlook this difference, and instead tend to draw solely on dominant mainstream Western settler definitions and approaches (Stewart et al., 2021; Thistle, 2017). As a result, many existing homelessness programmes for Indigenous youth that are not Indigenous informed and led fall short on arriving at being culturally based approaches to alleviating and ultimately preventing Indigenous homelessness (Stewart et al., 2021; Thistle, 2017). Centering Indigenous understandings of homelessness allow individuals, governments and service providers to develop ethical, tailored and culturally appropriate programming and resources for Indigenous youth facing homelessness (Stewart et al., 2021; Thistle, 2017).

Approaches to Indigenous homelessness must consider the specific histories and impacts of colonization on FNIM. Although FNIM cultures are not homogeneous and have different specific histories and experiences related to colonization between and among these populations, they do share similarities, for example, the attempt to assimilate all Indigenous Peoples into the dominant Canadian European culture and annihilate Indigenous lives, knowledges, languages and ways of living, although the ways this was done may vary the ultimate goal was the same. In addition, although FNIM Peoples may have different specific meanings and understandings of home depending on their unique nations and locations, they do share commonalities. For instance, as noted by Thistle (2017) for many Indigenous Peoples, home is more than a physical structure with “four walls and a roof” (Christensen, 2016, p. 87). In the Indigenous context, home can conjure up images of strong cultural connections and relationship to community, ceremony and land for example, as well as physical, spiritual, mental and emotional well-being (Christensen, 2017). As part of the colonial project, Indigenous Peoples and their communities were displaced in numerous ways, forcibly dislocating them from their identities, languages and other sources of their unique cultural formations, which is another form of homelessness, disconnection and isolation (Thistle, 2017; Victor et al., 2019). Indigenous Peoples may feel isolated or homeless if these connections and relationships are broken or missing (Christensen, 2016). In addition, the long-standing and deeply warranted mistrust many Indigenous Peoples have of the dominant mainstream system of care is deeply ingrained into how services are received and how effective they are (Gabriel et al., 2022; Patrick, 2014; Stewart et al., 2021). Therefore, it is vital to understand the meaning of home in ways that go beyond Western colonial definitions and account for the specific histories and experiences of Indigenous Peoples in relation to colonization and its brutal assimilationist strategies (Aboriginal Standing Committee on Housing and Homelessness, n.d.; Thistle, 2017). Exploring Endaayaang in this research as an Indigenous Housing First for Youth programme is key as it approaches Indigenous youth homelessness programming based on these broader considerations while also considering the unique needs of Indigenous youth.

Endaayaang: Indigenizing housing first for youth

Endaayaang blends Indigenous culture, and knowledges with HF4Y principles to offer wholistic services, including housing and culturally appropriate supports to Indigenous youth while considering the specificities of youth. Endaayaang builds on the five HF4Y principles, which include the following:

• A right to housing with no preconditions;

• Youth choice, youth voice, and self-determination;

• Positive youth development and wellness orientation;

• Individualized, client-driven supports with no time limits;

• Social inclusion and community engagement.

Endaayaang is open to all Indigenous youth from Turtle Island, which is the land now known as North America. Endaayaang’s primary objective is supporting Indigenous youths’ access to housing with no preconditions such as abstinence, or mandatory participation in school, and to receive culturally based supports to enhance their overall well-being and housing stability while in the programme. In addition, these core principles take into account the specific needs of youth (Gaetz et al., 2021).

Endaayaang also supports Indigenous youth through their schooling or as they transition out of the programme into independent living. According to the director of Endaayaang, the programme is designed with consideration of the specific barriers and challenges that unhoused Indigenous youth experience (C. Green, personal communication, June 20, 2021). Some of these experiences include racism, discrimination, trauma, intergenerational trauma, being placed in the foster care system, severed connections to their culture, family, and community.

The cultural teachings, integrated into Endaayaang although some are based in Ojibwe (First Nations peoples whose homelands cover the Great Lakes region of Canada) teachings specifically, are shared by many Indigenous Nations on Turtle Island. These include the Seven Grandfather Teachings, the Circle of Courage and the Medicine Wheel. In connecting these cultural teachings into the core of Endaayaang, each young person is paired with an Indigenous Navigator and Journey Coach. Another cultural aspect of the programming that is unique to Endaayaang is the connection youth have with a Navigator and Journey Coach. This connection is part of its efforts to accompany Indigenous youth on their path towards wholistic health and well-being as they transition into adulthood.

The Endaayaang Navigator is meant to support Indigenous youth in navigating their own lives by providing the supports that help them to create a full and healthy life. The Journey Coach, on the contrary, works together with the Navigator in providing additional assistance through opportunities for Indigenous youth to find and explore their culture and community (C. Green, personal communication, June 20, 2021). Together, the Journey Coach and Navigator are fundamental tenets of the programme that support Indigenous youth in developing necessary life skills at Endaayaang while helping them connect to their culture, community and relationships to strengthen health and well-being. Finally, Elders and Traditional Knowledge Holders work closely with Endaayaang staff and youth, ensuring that care and services address youths’ specific needs of many Indigenous nations and communities. Elders and Traditional Knowledge Holders are part of traditional intergenerational knowledge transmission (Flicker et al., 2015). According to Sarah Flicker et al. (2015), Elders and Traditional Knowledge Holders are potentially “important conflict mediators who [can help] talk through difficult decisions, assist with tension resolution and generally provide guidance and support” (p. 1151). This is a core tenet of the programme.

Thus, Elders and Traditional Knowledge Holders can provide Indigenous youth opportunities to heal and participate in spiritual teachings that help (re)connect them to their culture and who they are as Indigenous Peoples. Endaayaang ties together the role of the Elder, Traditional Knowledge Holder with a Navigator and Journey Coach to support Indigenous youth along on their paths to healthy adulthood. The incorporation of ceremony in these practical staff contact-points is put in place to support young people impacted by intergenerational trauma, forcefully removed from their communities, grew up in foster care, or are facing other historical and social factors that contributed to their homelessness. Teaching young people to build and maintain respectful relationships with Indigenous community members, Traditional Knowledge Holders, Elders and staff is built in at multiple levels and is a foundational component of Endaayaang.

Programmes such as Endaayaang require funding to fully operate and provide safe and appropriate resources, services and supports to Indigenous youth. The unfortunate reality is that funding can often be short lived and temporary, leaving already vulnerable youth at further risk. Endaayaang was funded by the collaborative efforts of Making the Shift Youth Homelessness Demonstration Lab, A Way Home Canada, and the Canadian Observatory on Homelessness with support from MaRS Centre for Impact Investing. Specifically funded by the Government of Canada’s Youth Employment and Skills Strategy, the Endaayaang programme is part of Making the Shift demonstration projects which aim to develop and test approaches to the prevention of and facilitate sustainable exits from homelessness.

Research design, Indigenous knowledges & methodology

This project aimed to implement an Indigenous research design and methodology with cultural humility. Specifically, a community-based research approach was employed that centred the voices of the Endaayaang programme coordinators, staff, Traditional Knowledge Holders, Elders, youth and the external research team as collaborators throughout all phases of the project. Empowering the voices of youth experiencing homelessness was of fundamental importance when completing the research in order to highlight the successes and challenges of Endaayaang as an Indigenous HF4Y programme from an Indigenous first voice perspective (Graveline Fyre, 1998). This approach highlights the youth telling their own story of how they experience Endaayaang as well as that of Indigenous staff, Traditional Knowledge Holders and Elders involved in the research. The approach to research methods aligned with other scholars in the field doing research with Indigenous Peoples (Ansloos & Wager, 2019; Smith, 2021). According to Ansloos and Wager (2019), the importance of using Indigenous methods and methodologies lies in centering Indigenous voices as “Indigenous people’s own voices need to come to the forefront of homelessness research . . . increased qualitative research emphasiz[ing] Indigenous peoples lived experiences [is] key to the development of social policy” (p. 53). An Indigenous approach, in this research, also involved viewing those who participated in the research as collaborators and not just research participants. It also included guidance from a Traditional Knowledge Holder involved in the project and other Indigenous advisors who are part of the programme throughout the entire research process (Smith, 2021; Wilson, 2008).

Before beginning the research and data collection, the Endaayaang research team ensured the research was approved by the Ethics Review Committee at York University, and throughout all phases of the project, the research team followed York University’s Guidelines for Conducting Research with People Who Are Homeless. This research approach was also approved by the staff at Endaayaang.

To better understand the cultural connectedness and ceremonial aspects of the Endaayaang programme and their impact, this research asked the following questions: How does an Indigenous led Housing First for youth programme support Indigenous youth experiencing homelessness? How does incorporating Indigenous cultural teachings and philosophies into a Housing First for youth programme impact Indigenous youth homelessness? And, how can an Indigenous-informed and Indigenous-led programme such as Endaayaang expand our conceptualization of Housing First approaches? To explore these questions, narrative interviews were used to gather the perspectives of youth, staff, Elders and Traditional Knowledge Holders at Endaayaang (Datta, 2018; Drawson et al., 2017). Narrative research methods are consistent with Indigenous oral traditions and storytelling as ways of knowing and sharing knowledge (Medicine-Eagle, 1989; Reeves & Stewart, 2014).

Individual narrative story gathering interviews were completed with 11 Indigenous youth (aged 16–24) from the Endaayaang programme who accessed their services in Year 2 of the programme (2021–2022), four service providers who support and serve the youth from the programme, and two Elders and Traditional Knowledge Holders involved in the project. The interviews were 30 to 60 min in duration and done via Zoom, due to COVID-19 pandemic restrictions, then transcribed and analysed using a narrative and thematic analysis technique developed by Indigenous scholar Suzanne Stewart (2008). Qualitative interview data were analysed thematically using Microsoft Word. Youth names were made anonymous through pseudonyms to protect the confidentiality of the participants, which is of utmost importance when completing qualitative research. The research team provided Endaayaang staff with a flyer about the research and they supported recruitment by posting the flyer at their organization to gauge interest and make a list of interested youth who wanted to be a part of the research that was then forwarded to the interviewers.

The interviews were completed when COVID-19 pandemic protocols were still in place and in-person engagement was restricted. As a result, the research team was left with no choice but to engage in relationship building, recruitment and outreach via zoom, with Endaayaang staff support. Postdoctoral fellows working at York University, Toronto, and the University of Toronto completed the interviews; they are all authors on this article as are two of the Indigenous staff and the Traditional Knowledge Holder at Endaayaang who helped guide this research. Cultural safety, reciprocity, active listening, and support were offered through prior training that the interviewers gained from their doctoral work and working alongside Indigenous communities for their postdoctoral work. This research aimed to include a participant-focused method of evaluating the Endaayaang programme through interviews with youth whereby they could retell the story of their journey navigating Endaayaang generally, but specifically during COVID-19. The purpose of the interviews was to generate in-depth narratives regarding the programme’s youth and staff’s experiences of services and supports and point to areas where potential improvements could be made; this is important for future research considerations and for implementing the programme locally and nationally.

In terms of positionality, the research team was composed of both Indigenous and non-Indigenous researchers. The research team included individuals from different social locations. There were Elders, Traditional Knowledge Holders and professors, postdoctoral fellows and directors and coordinators and youth. All of the youth interviews were completed by an Indigenous researcher, and the staff and research team interviews’ coding and analysis were completed by Indigenous and non-Indigenous researchers, but the interviewers all identify as ethnically diverse and are from equity seeking groups. From the beginning, an Elder and other Indigenous members of the research team helped guide the research design, process and analysis. The core research team had representation from Mi ‘kmaw (First Nations people in Canada whose traditional territory encompasses the Atlantic provinces and Quebec), Anishinaabe (a group of culturally and linguistically related First Nations, concentrated around the Great Lakes, in Canada and the United States) and Cree (First Nations people in Canada whose traditional territory spans northern Quebec, the eastern shore of James Bay and south-eastern Hudson Bay) as well as other racialized peoples.

After the interviews were completed, the researchers remained in contact with staff and youth from the programme to further establish relationships despite the research being over. In order to highlight the voices and perspectives of the Indigenous people who took part in each study, direct quotes and first-person accounts which speak to the themes outlined will be presented throughout the results section. The youth, staff, Elders, Traditional Knowledge Holders and the research team were also brought together in ceremony and talking circles, in order to reconnect after the interviews had been completed, with the intention of ensuring that the research and related processes were being carried out in a good way. All Indigenous youth, staff, Elders and Traditional Knowledge Holders involved self-identified as having Indigenous ancestry. As the project intended to be inclusive of the diversity among Indigenous Peoples, a balance of participants who were FNIM, Two-Spirit and transgendered individuals were recruited. However, it was not always made explicit during interviews whether young people identified as FNIM specifically and in some instances the youth did not want to disclose their specific identities. Perhaps a future consideration could be to include a quantitative aspect to the research to further understand the distinctions and uniqueness associated with each Indigenous youths’ experience in a confidential way.

Principles and practices of Indigenous reciprocity were honoured with participants through providing honorarium for their time, as well as the opportunity to help inform the evolution of the research project, and the Endaayaang programme, so that it can continue to meet the needs of Indigenous youth. Interviews provided an opportunity for those involved to share their experiences and stories about housing solutions for Indigenous youth, from an Indigenous perspective. Through sharing their lived experiences of homelessness and the Endaayaang programme, those involved help the programme continue to develop and improve its programming.

There are some limitations to doing this kind of research that are important to highlight. As mentioned, Indigenous youth homelessness is a major issue across Canada, and therefore it is difficult to capture a comprehensive account of this complex problem through interviewing a small sample size of youth, which is often the case when completing smaller scale studies in urban areas or evaluating a specific programme (Muir & Dean, 2017). While the Endaayaang programme has supported so many Indigenous youth, only the voices of those who decided to participate in interviews are included. Also, the perspectives of Indigenous youth experiencing homelessness who do not use services or public systems but are otherwise couch surfing or forced to live on the streets, have not been included. With that being said, as qualitative researchers, we value the uniqueness and insights shared in even one story, and therefore, even though the sample size is small, there is much to learn through youths’ words about the systemic barriers faced when young and homeless and specifically about their experiences with Endaayaang. As interviews were approximately 60 to 90 min in length, another limitation may have been the difficulty in fully grasping all the daily nuances of the Endaayaang programme and truly understanding the difficult daily realities for young Indigenous people experiencing homelessness. Despite these limitations, the authors believe the Endaayaang programme has served and supported Indigenous youth experiencing housing precarity and has significantly contributed to the prevention of Indigenous youth homelessness through its Indigenous Housing First approach combined with a focus on cultural connection and ceremony.

Understanding Indigenous knowledges and their role in Endaayaang

Cultural connections and the role of Elders

Central to the success of Endaayaang is the focus on cultural (re)connection for Indigenous youth. Endaayaang supports Indigenous youth in (re)connecting with their roots through learning the histories of Indigenous Peoples in Canada, as well as their own community and family histories, strengthening their connections to Indigenous communities and facilitating access to ceremony and community events. For youth, this can mean

• being brought into ceremony;

• having access to traditional healing;

• learning cultural practices—such as smudging and drumming;

• access to places to feel safe and practice their culture;

• forming connections with Elders and community;

• embracing Indigenous ways of knowing and being—such as the Seven Grandfather Teachings, the Medicine Wheel, and the Circle of Courage.

According to an Endaayaang Elder, cultural programming for Indigenous youth is a critical aspect of Endaayaang. He goes on to say that “cultural programming can become somewhat of a balancing act, between helping young people develop a traditional lens, while learning Indigenous practices, and helping them connect to services that are very mainstream” (CR 8). For this Endaayaang Elder, the balancing act is key in helping “young people learn who they are, and where they come from” (CR 4). Thus, the foundation of Endaayaang is strengths-based, centred around enhancing young peoples’ skills through an Indigenous wholistic lens.

Such an approach considers a young person’s health from a wholistic perspective which includes their physical, emotional, spiritual and mental well-being, as well creating and maintaining a relationship and connection to the land, and community. As such, the Elder’s role is to guide the relationship between Indigenous youth. An Elder’s role is not forceful, rather meant to provide support, acknowledge and broaden the lens which young people view and interact with the world around them.

Engagement with an Elder is a central aspect of Endaayaang’s programming and is approached with respect and care. Elders provide significant benefits in terms of health and wellness to their communities, and youth, and their involvement can also benefit Elders themselves (Viscogliosi et al., 2020). Elders pass along life experiences and knowledges to youth, while youth share their knowledges and may offer forms of support to the Elders through other avenues: a reciprocal relationship. The intergenerational and reciprocal relationships were especially valuable during the pandemic, where so many felt isolated, including Endaayaang’s youth, some of whom are working to try and build trust and relations with their families. One Endaayaang programme coordinator says that it is important to help youth connect with their culture, explaining,

we know that there are a lot of people, not just youth, that have shame about being Indigenous, because of systemic racism, racism, discrimination, and stereotypes. So, some people just don’t want to identify because of that. (CR 3)

The teaching of traditional knowledges and practices is a natural part of many Indigenous Peoples’ way of life. It is a way of sharing values, culture and collective identity, through Indigenous Elders who guide in the participation in education, community development and intergenerational relationships (Kant et al., 2014; Viscogliosi et al., 2019). In an Indigenous context, someone is recognized by other community members as an Elder, not based on age, but based on wisdom, skills and knowledge (Wilson, 2008). Most Elders contribute to the wellness aimed at benefitting youth, family and communities, favouring intergenerational solidarity (Viscogliosi et al., 2019). Overall, Elders play different roles in the communities, in families and how they share their expertise. For instance, Elders contribute to their communities and the development of Indigenous youth by teaching Indigenous languages, lend their participation in the development of employment programmes, or integrate traditional healing practices in local health centres. Their contributions are either on a paid or volunteer basis (Viscogliosi et al., 2020).

In the case of Endaayaang, Elders and Traditional Knowledge Holders serve an important role in connecting youth to their cultural identities and offering a sense of family that tends to not be integrated into many non-Indigenous youth homelessness prevention programming. One of Endaayaangs’ Elders sees his role as a helper. He says, “in Ojibwe, an Elder, or a practitioner, is someone who helps to prepare ceremonies, by connecting people back to the land” (CR 7). This Elder emphasized the importance of having diverse Elders or knowledge practitioners, who also are respectful of diverse traditions in the programme. This Elder says he draws from various teaching tools such as the Circle of Courage, the Seven Grandfather and the Medicine Wheel teachings in his practice, offering varying ways to guide youth into healing, helping them connect to their ancestors and the land if they chose to. It is important to note that the youth who engage with Endaayaang programming are never pressured or forced into connecting with an Elder, but often they come to find their own connections with Elders as a way to develop deeper into their identities, which is powerful. One of the Endaayaang coordinators states that

I think one thing is having, having a good relationship with leaders and Elders that you trust in the community who can kind of go at the pace of the young person where nothing’s pressured or forced, but just slow teachings and that space for you to just ask whatever they need to ask for to feel safe . . . a lot of it is about relationships. (CR 9)

While one of the programme Elders says,

this is not just a job where you, you punch in punch out, you know, check the box . . . you, you’re involved now in this person’s life you’re, you have a connection, a spiritual connection . . . that’s the most important part . . . connecting with that person having a spiritual connection with that person, you know, emotionally, physically, mentally, spiritually, emotionally. . . And be and be there for that person because the stuff will come up, because the youth who walk through those doors, unfortunately, so many of them have some traumas to deal with, abandonment, foster care, poverty, everything. (CR 2)

Many Indigenous Elders believe in the importance of teaching to a person’s heart in healing and moving through trauma (Brokenleg & Van Bockern, 2003; Gilgun, 2002). Educating a person’s heart requires a reflective and responsive interaction between the youth and Elders as well as an understanding of relationality. Endaayaang provides a safe space for Indigenous youth to discover who they are and begin to work through that historical and internalized shame which can be profoundly healing (Maracle, 2021). The staff and Elders at Endaayaang are deeply committed to the work they do and their relationships with youth as they move through their healing journey. This commitment and the sense that the work is more than just a job, a calling so to speak, a spiritual connection, is a crucial aspect of this programme. Through this relationship, trust is built on both sides, which lends itself to healing and health.

This next section outlines the guiding principles of Endaayaang, the Circle of Courage, the Seven Grandfather Teachings and the Medicine Wheel and their importance in the programme.

The circle of courage

Endaayaang’s programme is steeped in Indigenous philosophies, which is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Instead, Indigenous philosophies are threaded through various parts of Endaayaang, which includes how Elders guide their work, and how Navigators and Journey Coaches approach their work with Indigenous youth. The Circle of Courage (COC) is one of the fundamental approaches to the Endaayaang programme. The COC is an Indigenous philosophy and practice that supports the positive development of youth while helping to deepen resilience. It is based on an Indigenous principle that to be emotionally healthy, all youth need the following:

• A spirit of belonging;

• A spirit of mastery;

• A spirit of independency;

• A spirit of generosity.

The COC was developed in 1988 by the co-founders of Reclaiming Youth International. Bendtro et al. (2019) define the COC as a set of values that need to be at the forefront when addressing challenges that youth experience on a day-to-day basis. What makes the COC unique and self-empowering is that it defines young peoples’ difficulties or setbacks in terms of strengths and developmental needs rather than deficits that need to be fixed. Thus, the COC’s principles promote deepened strength and resilience.

The creators of the COC believe that children and youths’ experiences and behaviours reflect their environments. They also argue that modern society is often lonely and this has a major impact on youth mental and social health (Brendtro et al., 2019). Living in isolation can break the circle and can result in a collapse in Indigenous youths’ cultural and support networks, potentially disconnecting them from who they are, their communities and land, which can further distance them from their innate strengths. Indigenous youth who are out of balance with the COC principles are at risk of becoming lost and thus vulnerable to mental health and social issues (Brokenleg & Van Bockern, 2003; Gabriel et al., 2022; McKee et al., 2017), which can lead to homelessness. Endaayaang grounds their practices in the Circle of Courage as it is a more wholistic way of thinking. It is Indigenous-specific compared with more mainstream practices involving Indigenous youth.

One of the fundamental tenets guiding Endaayaang is that reconnection to culture through cultural immersion and supports is a way for Indigenous youth to reconnect the circle. As noted by the Project Lead of Endaayaang,

Indigenous People have experienced trauma, and if we’ve experienced trauma at a young age we get stuck in a place of trauma, and it impacts our spirit, and it can either distort it or break it. The Circle of Courage really allows an understanding of how to mend that broken spirit. And to do that, we need to focus on four areas, which includes belonging, mastery, independency, and generosity. (CR 10)

Western colonization has severely disrupted Indigenous Peoples’ lives, spiritual and cultural practices as well as their connection to land and community. Colonialism and its many brutal processes have left generations of Indigenous Peoples with deep scars that have impacted multiple generations. The co-creators of the COC make it clear that all children are born with the need to form attachments, to build achievements, to have autonomy and to be altruistic (Brendtro et al., 2019). The Circle of Courage framework helps youth understand their experiences are not individual, rather impacted by their surrounding social environment as well. Noting that systematic racism is a result of historical policies and practices, like the Indian Act 1876 which enacted federal policies and laws, such as not practicing certain ceremonies, that were punishable by law if not followed helps youth develop a historical perspective on their lives. Thus, the Circle of Courage is an important set of guiding principles that can help rebuild young peoples’ sense of belonging, mastery, independence and generosity of spirit which is an important element for healing from past traumas (Brendtro et al., 2019; Brokenleg & Van Bockern, 2003). Endaayaang’s Programme Lead reiterates the significance of the Circle of Courage by saying that

The Circle of Courage is important because it focuses on one’s Spirit. . . . it really allows an understanding of how to mend that broken spirit. And to do that, we need to focus on four areas. So, it is the spirit of belonging, which focuses on who we are, where we come from, that level of trust, feeling included . . ., and all of those things our young people may struggle with. And then we move through and go into our spirit of mastery, and that’s looking at, you know, the hard work that these young people are putting into being successful. To attend their, unit viewing, to keep their unit clean, to you know, go back to school, or, or find a job, whatever their goals are to, to achieve. And that brings us into the spirit of independence. Independence isn’t just how to stand on your own two feet and do things on your own. Being independent is also knowing when, to ask for help, to reach out to utilize your resources, to recognize what’s available to you, in order for you to be successful. And then we look at the spirit of generosity, and that’s really about giving back to your community. (CR 10)

These principles, as articulated above, illustrate how youth can be guided towards reconnecting to the circle and work towards developing into healthy adults through this programme.

Seven grandfather teachings

The next set of guiding principles fundamental to the Endaayaang programme are the Seven Grandfathers Teachings. The Seven Grandfather Teaching are Anishinaabe teachings meant to guide human conduct towards others and mino-bimaadiziwin, which translates to living a good life. These teachings include (1) Wisdom, (2) Love, (3) Honesty, (4) Respect, (5) Bravery, (6) Humility, and (7) Truth.

According to Benton-Banai (1988), an Ojibwe teacher and spiritual leader, the Seven Grandfather Teachings form the foundation of Indigenous ways of life. There are multiple versions of these teachings, but according to Benton-Banai (1988), there were Seven Grandfathers who were each given a responsibility by the creator to watch over the people on Mother Earth. The Ojibwe believe that these Seven Grandfathers are very powerful spirits. The Ojibwe people recognized that the people on Turtle Island were living in negative and unhealthy ways and the Grandfathers wanted to help them. The Seven Grandfathers decided to give each of their gifts to an innocent young child, who still had the ability to learn how to live a good life. A young child was chosen to take on the role of receiving these gifts. The legend is that when the child was given the gifts, the child did not know what the gifts were, and therefore had to travel the earth for an entire lifetime to learn what each of the seven gifts were. The story further explains that every 7 years, they were met by a spirit animal that revealed each gift and its meanings (Benton-Benai, 1988).

The Seven Grandfather Teachings were offered to the Indigenous Peoples by the Creator as guidance for living a balanced life (Benton-Benai, 1988). The Seven Grandfather Teachings have been identified by both Elders and mental health workers as important guiding principles for Indigenous youths’ healing and development. This is significant as the Grandfather Teachings show that Indigenous youth can develop a stronger sense of identity through stories, and teachings from Elders (Sasakamoose et al., 2016). These patterns are a necessary part of building Indigenous youths’ resilience and cultural identity, which is also key in suicide prevention (Maracle, 2021). These beliefs are deeply ingrained into Endaayaang’s everyday interactions with youth. For instance, one of Endaayaang’s Elders explained the role of the Seven Grandfather Teachings, which he said,

can be used as a teaching tool to sort of help you to reset, you know. . . I’ll try to put this very simply, they were left behind for us. And they show us how to reset the balance within ourselves. Historically, right, that you know, and now to the present of resetting the balance, so many of us are out of balance, physically, mentally, spiritually, emotionally. And so the whole point is to try to keep the balance. So the Seven Grandfather Teachings are there to help with that, that is our way of leading on good life. (CR 2)

The next guiding principle, the Medicine Wheel, is also used to guide the programme. It can also be used as a framework to illustrate the wholistic nature of life and the world around us.

Medicine wheel

The Medicine Wheel is the third framework that guides the Endaayaang programme. For many Indigenous Peoples in Canada, the Medicine Wheel, also known as the Sacred Circle, is an important framework for viewing the world, representing the interconnectivity of all parts of one’s being and the natural world (Joseph, 2020). The Medicine Wheel is based on the sacredness of the number four. Even though there are a few different interpretations to the Medicine Wheel based on cultural differences between various Indigenous Peoples and nations, the four dimensions remain quite consistent. Ultimately, the Medicine Wheel speaks to the balance between all four spheres of being human, including the mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual. These four aspects must be considered in healing from trauma and grief, and establishing and maintaining balance between these four parts of the self is a critical component of health and wellbeing.

Each of the four directions in the Medicine Wheel represents element of wholistic health: physical health corresponds with the western direction, spiritual health corresponds to the southern direction, emotional health corresponds with the eastern direction and mental health corresponds with the northern direction, which are individually visualized on a continuum to show the interconnectedness and simultaneousness of different events and conditions. The Medicine Wheel consists of four domains and can be used to teach various life lessons that are part of our natural development. There is no one absolute version of the Medicine Wheel; it is adapted for the circumstance, the community and Nation. The simple teachings are that the circle symbolizes the continuity and connectedness of events with the added dynamism of flow between each direction (Joseph, 2020).

The Medicine Wheel can be particularly useful when looking at wholistic healing, recovery and health. Within the Medicine Wheel, healing practices go beyond limited notions of recovery, offering Indigenous Peoples more practical ways to address physical, emotional, spiritual, and mental health (Isaac & Marchessault, 2008). The Medicine Wheel teachings are vast and within these teachings is an understanding that being healthy is fundamentally based on balance between four interconnected dimensions physical, spiritual, emotional and mental, noted in the previous paragraph (Lavallee & Poole, 2010). Lavallee and Poole (2010) argue that Western concepts of mental health, for example, fail to establish a balance between these four realms when working with Indigenous populations. Thus, the teachings of the Medicine Wheel are a deeper, more wholistic set of teachings that can be conveyed from generation to generation of Indigenous Peoples across the Americas (Cherubini et al., 2010). This approach to knowing and seeing the world and our lives is conceptualized as a series of interconnected circles, and each teaching is a self-contained and comprehensive body of knowledge that connects to other circle teachings. One of the Anishnaabe Elders involved in the programme says this about the Medicine Wheel and how it can help them guide youth towards healing from past trauma:

the Medicine Wheel, it’s a teaching tool to help you through the stages of life . . . helping you walk to the stage of your life. . . It’s a teaching tool . . . It’s a Medicine Wheel. That’s why they call it a medicine, you take the medicine, the teachings, and you go take that to heal yourself. . . I’m here to support you in this and helping you heal the self. By recognizing that first negative experience, and then you can let it go asking spirit to help you to let it go. (CR 11)

While one of the other Endaayaang staff states,

we utilize the Medicine Wheel to put in their goal, so their goal is right in the middle. And we work with them to identify what’s needed for them to achieve their goal so that is mental, physical, emotional and spiritual. (CR 5)

The Medicine Wheel is medicine for working with Indigenous youth at Endaayaang as they work towards healing. This plays a role in their healthy development towards remaining housed and becoming a healthy adult.

Key bodies of Indigenous knowledges, such as the Seven Grandfather Teachings, the Circle of Courage principles, and the Medicine Wheel, not only guide the work at Endaayaang but can shape the experiences of young people in the programme. For instance, the Seven Grandfather Teachings inform a youth-centred approach to case management and help organize and coordinate the delivery of services. Identification of programme outcomes is also done in a cultural manner, through a wholistic model based on the Medicine Wheel that considers the spiritual, physical, emotional and mental aspects of youth, while the Circle of Courage provides a tool to inform healing the spirit and healthy development into adulthood. The basic idea is that infusing culture in the programme at every level and from Day 1 will contribute to the youths’ healing journey, staying housed and transitioning into being a healthy adult.

Indigenous youth voices

As illustrated above, (re)connection to culture through cultural immersion and support is a vital component of Endaayaang and it provides a way for youth to reclaim their Indigenous identity (Maracle, 2021). One youth described their experiences with Endaayaang as helping them learn about their Indigenous identity and advocates for the programme’s expansion across Canada. They describe Endaayaang as a gentle place that helps youth to connect to their culture:

There’s a lot of youth that has been distant from their culture. A lot of youth that have been ripped away. I was ripped away. I didn’t know who I was. I didn’t know where I came from. . . I was in my teens when I finally found out that I have an Indigenous background, that I’m Native . . . I was in custody at the time. I was arrested and there was an Indigenous woman that was working there. That was the first time that I was even exposed to Indigenous culture because I never knew what it was. In school they just said “oh, this is what it is” but they never really taught that to me, right? They never really said anything really about it, especially because I didn’t even know about it and who I was. My vision for the [Endaayaang] program is to show kids this is who you are and this is where you came from. This is your ancestors. [Endaayaang] gives the teachings to let youth figure out where they want to go in life and their pathway. (CR 12)

One of the Elders involved in the Endaayaang programme goes on to say,

a lot of people who walk through those doors, youth, etc. are trying to relearn their culture, their identity, and unlearn all these negative programs, I guess, in their, their belief systems . . . this is what this place was created for . . . to help you and help you get on your feet. . . . And that’s very important . . . with a sense of I don’t like the word pride, a sense of, of dignity, right? We say, okay, here we’re here to help you. What do you need? Sometimes [the youth] don’t know what they need. . . . Sometimes they don’t know what they want. (CR 1)

Working with the cultural teachings alongside the support of Elders and other Indigenous programme support staff helps young people learn about themselves from a place of care, compassion, and dignity. The (re)connection to culture is a fundamental aspect of the Endaayaang programme and this is what makes it a unique approach to HF4Y programming in Canada. The role of Elders is interlocked as a crucial component of (re)connecting to culture, as they provide support through their own lived experiences and knowledges, guiding youth to feel less alone on their journey. One of the youth stated that

I think that, you know, providing these cultural connections, which is a big part of what Endaayaang did for the youth is really helpful, because it’s helping youth like find and connect with that part of their identity which I think overall is super helpful for youth, like in their journeys so, I was really glad to be able to be a part of that. (CR 4)

It is evident that the importance of cultural connection, community and reconnecting one’s Indigenous identity is something that can ultimately contribute to preventing homelessness in the future. Here, another youth speaks about the importance of ceremony and culture:

I’m just wondering what the culture is about. I didn’t grow up in a Native family or grow up with any of my family that was Native. I grew up in a different home so I never really got to be in that type of environment . . . I would like to know and get to know it because it’s important to me since I’m adopted. I think it would be cool to get to know my culture. (CR 10)

Stewart (2018) reminds us that Federal government policies created in the 1800s that are still in place today were designed to destroy Indigenous cultures. Furthermore, the “experience of forced homelessness is still felt today in the form of intergenerational trauma and its effects, including precarious housing and homelessness” (Stewart, 2018, p. 90). This continues to impact Indigenous youth today as families across multiple generations have been affected by the brutal assimilationist strategies employed by the state. Providing a safe place to access and learn about Indigenous teachings and ceremony is a vital component to the experiences of Indigenous youth in the programme as they move towards housing and becoming healthy adults.

Discussion

Endaayaang is an Indigenous-led and Indigenous-informed Housing First for youth programme with distinct features that enhance typical ways of conceptualizing, approaching and implementing Housing First for Youth programmes across Canada and globally (Green et al., 2018). As mentioned, Housing First for Youth has been around for some time now and has proven its efficacy by providing housing without preconditions and allowing youth experiencing homelessness with safe and affordable housing for a longer duration than the homelessness sector tends to through emergency services and supports such as shelters and drop-ins (Bonakdar et al., 2023).

Through an analysis of Endaayaang, as a regional case study, it is apparent that the goals of Endaayaang span beyond connecting youth to housing and other emergency services and supports, which are typically how youth homelessness services operate. Rather, Endaayaang contributes to how Indigenous youth housing issues are conceptualized and how programming is enacted from an Indigenous led approach. This programme helps provide youth with wholistic care and opportunities that foster (re)connecting to culture, access to traditional healing, growth and resilience. For Indigenous youth specifically, we believe a critical aspect of Endaayaang as a HF4Y programme is that it is purposefully Indigenous-informed and Indigenous-led. It is early days for Endaayaang but this study, although small and local to this region in Canada, illustrates the potential strengths of this approach for the youth, staff and Elders. A key aspect of this programme is helping youth (re)connect to their cultural identity, home community, if they have one, and helping them build a sense of community if they are alone and isolated. This strengths-based approach contributes to healing that is grounded in relationship, a relationship with themselves as Indigenous youth and with a broader community. Endaayaang is unique as it draws from Indigenous philosophies of guidance and mentorship from Elders, and incorporates the Seven Grandfather Teachings, Circle of Courage and the Medicine Wheel, to help a young person heal. Indigenous philosophies allow opportunities for healing to take place and are there to guide the youth on their journey to healthy adulthood. The impact of cultural (re)connection that Endaayaang youth, Elders and staff shared in their interviews supports existing scholarship that illuminates the importance of incorporating Indigenous ways of knowing into Indigenous youth programming in order for young people to heal and find their way home. However, the authors note that cultural recognition must be integrated and incorporated alongside programmes that are working to fight against the material inequities caused by colonialism and its ongoing impact, which we argue have created housing and homelessness issues for Indigenous Peoples.

Providing safe and affordable housing is a significant step towards improving the lives of Indigenous youth who have experienced homelessness. However, creating systemic and structural changes more broadly in society and moving towards decolonizing and Indigenizing all Indigenous youth homelesseness programming can make deep contributions to preventing and alleviating Indigenous youth homelessness (Lawson-Te Aho et al., 2019; Stewart et al., 2021). Approaching programming in this way would enable Indigenous youth to transition towards adulthood healthfully and provide them with additional wholistic health supports that are not always rooted in Western ways of supporting health (Gabriel et al., 2022; Stewart, 2018; Stewart et al., 2021). In seeing the positive impacts that cultural integration has had on the youth in this research, we believe it is important for all Housing First for youth programmes to incorporate elders or other guides and cultural programming into their programming.

Many youth homelessness programmes across Canada are not like Endaayaang. Endaayaang is a unique Indigenous HF4Y programme and therefore Indigenous youth who become homeless and are accessing programmes that do not have an Indigenous focus, due to location, access and circumstance, for example, should be provided with the same supports offered by Endaayaang. Many Indigenous youth are using other programmes and services that may not meet their specific needs and, therefore, may fall short of being effective (Gabriel et al., 2022; Stewart et al., 2021). While we can appreciate that funding costs and systemic issues have created barriers on this front, we argue for a shift across the homelessness sector which would enable all Indigenous youth experiencing homelessness, accessing any programme to have the same resources we know can have a positive and transformative impact. This is one of many ways for Canadian housing and homelessness support programmes to move towards decolonization and reconciliation.

Conclusion

Among the youth homelessness population across Canada, research demonstrates that Indigenous youth are overrepresented. Some of the many contributing factors include Canada’s history of colonization and the forced removal of Indigenous Peoples from their homelands, the forced removal of Indigenous children from their homes and communities and into residential schools, the 60’s scoop and the subsequent intergenerational traumas that have resulted. This has led to severed ties to homelands, communities, families, culture and identity. As the circumstances that have led to Indigenous homelessness have been experienced by young Indigenous Peoples themselves, it is important that solutions to homelessness come from Indigenous Peoples, including youth and communities. This approach has been implemented at Endaayaang. For example, the integral involvement of ceremony, which includes traditional teachings and connecting with Elders, Traditional Knowledge Holders and community, is a key and helpful aspect of the experience of Indigenous youth in the programme. It is still early days for the Endaayaang programme so it is critical that the voices of those involved, particularly the youth, are listened to, and that their experiences continue to help inform the evaluation of this programme so that the programme can continue to develop.