Grounded in the theory of reasoned action, this research aims to integrate self-interest and pro-social motive variables to identify the effective conditions that influence tourists’ ethical behaviors when participating in animal-related tourism activities. Innovative statistical methods, specifically Generalized Structured Component Analysis Measurement Errors Incorporated and Necessary Condition Analysis, were used to verify a theoretical framework and identify necessary and/or sufficient conditions that contribute to tourists’ behavioral intentions (BIs) for ethical animal tourism. To provide a comprehensive understanding, this study considered animal welfare literacy and concern for animal abuse in tourism as moderators. A subgroup analysis was conducted using a rigorous methodological procedure, revealing four categories of predictive variables: necessary and sufficient, necessary but insufficient, unnecessary but sufficient, and unnecessary and insufficient. The results of the study demonstrated that a sense of moral obligation to engage in ethical animal-related tourism was a necessary and sufficient condition for BI among tourists.
BambergS.MöserG. (2007). Twenty years after Hines, Hungerford, and Tomera: A new meta-analysis of psycho-social determinants of proenvironmental behaviour. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 27, 14–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2006.12.002
4.
BambergS.HuneckeM.BlobaumA. (2007). Social context, personal norms and the use of public transportation: Two field studies. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 27, 190–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2007.04.001
5.
BarberN.TaylorD. C.DealeC. S. (2010). Wine tourism, environmental concerns, and purchase intention. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 27(2), 146–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548400903579746
6.
BertellaG.FumagalliM.Williams-GreyV. (2019). Wildlife tourism through the co-creation lens. Tourism Recreation Research, 44(3), 300–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2019.1606977
7.
BlaerM. (2022). Animal rescue tourism: Digital technology-enhanced approaches to support voluntourist engagement, animal welfare and rights. Tourism Recreation Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2022.2046991
8.
CaplowS. (2021). Using value-belief-norm theory to explore visitor responses to education programs at animal-themed facilities. The Journal of Environmental Education, 52(3), 190–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.2021.1900043
9.
ChiX.MengB.ZhouH.HanH. (2022). Cultivating and disseminating a festival image: The case of the Qingdao International Beer Festival. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 39(4), 371–391. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2022.2105474
10.
ChuaB.HanH. (2022). Green hotels: The state of green hotel research and future prospects. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 39(5), 465–483. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2022.2136329
11.
CohenE. (2018). The philosophical, ethical and theological groundings of tourism–an exploratory inquiry. Journal of Ecotourism, 17(4), 359–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/14724049.2018.1522477
12.
DulJ. (2016). Necessary condition analysis (NCA): Logic and methodology of “necessary but not sufficient” causality. Organizational Research Methods, 19(1), 10–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428115584005
DulJ.Van Der LaanE.KuikR. (2020). A statistical significance test for necessary condition analysis. Organizational Research Methods, 23, 385–395. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442811879527
15.
FakfareP.JianvittayakitL.WattanacharoensilW. (2022). Determinants of self-drive attributes supporting destination advocacy: Case of Thai domestic tourists. Journal of Vacation Marketing. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/13567667221127392
FennellD. A. (2014). Exploring the boundaries of a new moral order for tourism’s global code of ethics: An opinion piece on the position of animals in the tourism industry. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(7), 983–996. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2014.918137
FishbeinM.AjzenI. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Addision-Wesley.
21.
GaoY.MattilaA. S.AndreuL. (2022). Current knowledge and research directions of responsible tourism and hospitality: A review and research agenda. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/10963480221143729
22.
GundalaR. R.NawazN.HarindranathR. M.BoobalanK.GajenderanV. K. (2022). Does gender moderate the purchase intention of organic foods? Theory of reasoned action. Heliyon, 8(9), Article e10478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10478
23.
HairJ. F.HowardM. C.NitzlC. (2020). Assessing measurement model quality in PLS-SEM using confirmatory site analysis. Journal of Business Research, 109, 101–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.11.069
24.
HairJ. F.RisherJ. J.SarstedtM.RingleC. M. (2019). When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. European Business Review, 31(1), 2–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/EBR-11-2018-0203
25.
HanH. (2014). The norm activation model and theory-broadening: Individuals’ decision-making on environmentally-responsible convention attendance. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 40, 462–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2014.10.006
26.
HanH. (2015). Travelers’ pro-environmental behavior in a green lodging context: Converging value-belief-norm theory and the theory of planned behavior. Tourism Management, 47, 164–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.09.014
27.
HanH. (2020). Theory of green purchase behavior (TGPB): A new theory for green hotel and green restaurant products. Business Strategy and the Environment, 29(6), 2815–2828. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.2545
28.
HanH. (2021). Consumer behavior and environmental sustainability in tourism and hospitality: A review of theories, concepts, and latest research. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29(7), 1021–1042. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2021.1903019
29.
HanH.HwangJ.LeeM. J.KimJ. (2019). Word-of-mouth, buying, and sacrifice intentions for eco-cruises: Exploring the function of norm activation and value-attitude-behavior. Tourism Management, 70, 430–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.09.006
30.
HanH.HwangJ.LeeS. (2017a). Cognitive, affective, normative, and moral triggers of sustainable intentions among convention-goers. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 51, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.03.003
31.
HanH.HwangJ.LeeM. J. (2017b). The value–belief–emotion–norm model: Investigating customers’ eco-friendly behavior. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 34(5), 590–607. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2016.1208790
32.
HanH.KimY. (2010). An investigation of green hotel customers’ decision formation: Developing an extended model of the theory of planned behavior. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 29(4), 659–668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.01.001
33.
HanH.MengB.KimW. (2017c). Emerging bicycle tourism and the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 25(2), 292–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2016.1202955
34.
HauffS.GuerciM.DulJ.van RheeH. (2021). Exploring necessary conditions in HRM research: Fundamental issues and methodological implications. Human Resource Management Journal, 31(1), 18–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/1748-8583.12231
35.
HenselerJ.RingleC. M.SarstedtM. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43, 115–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8
36.
Hoarau-HeemstraH.KlineC. (2022). Making kin and making sense of human-animal relations in tourism. Ecological Economics, 196, Article 107396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2022.107396
HwangH.TakaneY.JungK. (2017). Generalized structured component analysis with uniqueness terms for accommodating measurement error. Frontier in Psychology, 8, Article 2137. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02137
40.
JangH. W.ChoM. (2022). The relationship between ugly food value and consumers’ behavioral intentions: Application of the Theory of Reasoned Action. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 50, 259–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2022.02.009
41.
JooS.BaeJ.JungY.ChunM. S.ParkH. (2023). Entertaining commodities or living beings? Public perception of animal welfare at local festivals in South Korea. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 36(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-022-09897-0
42.
KarwowskiM.DulJ.GralewskiJ.JaukE.JankowskaD. M.GajdaA.BenedekM. (2016). Is creativity without intelligence possible? A necessary condition analysis. Intelligence, 57, 105–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2016.04.006
43.
KimJ.KimS.HailuT. B.RyuH.HanH. (2023). Does central bank digital currency (CBDC) payment create the opportunity for the tourism industry?Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/10963480231158773
44.
KlineC.FischerB. (2023). Morality on holiday: Inspiring ethical behaviour in animal-based tourism through non-moral values. Tourism Recreation Research, 48(2), 147–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2021.1911273
45.
LeT. H.WuH. C.HuangW. S.LiouG. B.HuangC. C.HsiehC. M. (2021). Determinants of tourists’ intentions to agrotourism in Vietnam from perspectives of Value–Belief–Norm theory. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 38(9), 881–899. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2021.1985040
46.
LeeH. Y.BonnM. A.ReidE. L.KimW. G. (2017). Differences in tourist ethical judgment and responsible tourism intention: An ethical scenario approach. Tourism Management, 60, 298–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.12.003
47.
LeeK. (2011). The role of media exposure, social exposure and biospheric value orientation in the environmental attitude-intention-behavior model in adolescents. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 31(4), 301–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2011.08.004
48.
LiuB.LiY.KraljA.MoyleB.HeM. (2022). Inspiration and wellness tourism: The role of cognitive appraisal. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 39(2), 173–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2022.2061676
49.
ManosuthiN.LeeJ. S.HanH. (2021). An innovative application of composite-based structural equation modeling in hospitality research with empirical example. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 62(1), 139–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/1938965520951751
50.
McBrideB. B.BrewerC. A.BerkowitzA. R.BorrieW. T. (2013). Environmental literacy, ecological literacy, ecoliteracy: What do we mean and how did we get here?Ecosphere, 4(5), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1890/ES13-00075.1
51.
MeepromS.SathatipP.LeruksaC.ManosuthiN.FakfareP. (2023). Cannabis-infused food: Uncovering effective conditions for achieving well-being perception and choice behavior among young adult consumers. Food Quality and Preference, 109, Article 104915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2023.104915
52.
MkonoM.HolderA. (2019). The future of animals in tourism recreation: Social media as spaces of collective moral reflexivity. Tourism Management Perspectives, 29, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2018.10.002
53.
OnwezenM. C.AntonidesG.BartelsJ. (2013). The norm activation model: An exploration of the functions of anticipated pride and guilt in pro-environmental behavior. Journal of Economic Psychology, 39, 141–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2013.07.005
54.
PavlouP. (2003). Consumer acceptance of electronic commerce: Integrating trust and risk with the technology acceptance model. International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 7(3), 69–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/10864415.2003.11044275
55.
QuanL.KimJ.HanH. (2022). Customer views on comprehensive green hotel selection attributes and analysis of importance–performance. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 39(6), 535–554. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2022.2162657
RichterN. F.SchubringS.HauffS.RingleC. M.SarstedtM. (2020). When predictors of outcomes are necessary: Guidelines for the combined use of PLS-SEM and NCA. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 120(12), 2243–2264. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMDS-11-2019-0638
58.
RoemerE.SchuberthF.HenselerJ. (2021). HTMT2–an improved criterion for assessing discriminant validity in structural equation modeling. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 121(12), 2637–2650. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMDS-02-2021-0082
59.
RyuK.JangS. (2006). Intention to experience local cuisine in a travel destination: The modified theory of reasoned action. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 30(4), 507–516. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348006287163
60.
SchwartzS. H. (1977). Normative influence on altruism. In BerkowitzL. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 221–279). Academic Press.
61.
SheppardB. H.HartwickJ.WarshawP. R. (1988). The theory of reasoned action: A meta-analysis of past research with recommendations for modifications and future research. Journal of Consumer Research, 15, 325–343. https://doi.org/10.1086/209170
SternP. C. (2000). Toward a coherent theory of environmentally significant behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 56(3), 407–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00175
64.
StegL.de GrootJ. (2010). Explaining prosocial intentions: Testing causal relationships in the norm activation model. British Journal of Social Psychology, 49, 725–743. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466609X477745
65.
TsangN. K.GongA.AuW. C. W. (2022). Rural tourism product promotion: A comparison of message framing techniques. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 39(7–9), 609–622. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2023.2184444
66.
TsaurS. H.YenC. H.LinY. S. (2022). Destination inspiration: Scale development and validation. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 39(5), 484–500. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2022.2148040
67.
UsluA.TosunP. (2023). Examining the impact of the fear of missing out on museum visit intentions. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/10963480231168608
68.
von EssenE.LindsjöJ.BergC. (2020). Instagranimal: Animal welfare and animal ethics challenges of animal-based tourism. Animals, 10, Article 1830. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10101830
69.
WangM.RasoolimaneshS. M.KunasekaranP.ZhaoY. (in Press). Understanding over-ordering behaviour in social dining: Integrating mass media exposure and sense of ‘Mianzi’ into the norm activation model. The Service Industries Journal, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2022.2138356
70.
WinterC. (2020). A review of research into animal ethics in tourism: Launching the annals of tourism research curated collection on animal ethics in tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 84, Article 102989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2020.102989
71.
XieP. F.LuoJ. (2021). Investigating visitor attitudes towards the reopening of a theme park: An application of the push-pull-mooring model. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 38(8), 867–880. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2021.1961653
72.
ZhangS. N.LiY. Q.LiuC. H.RuanW. Q. (2019). Critical factors in the identification of word-of-mouth enhanced with travel apps: The moderating roles of Confucian culture and the switching cost view. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 24(5), 422–442. https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2019.1572630
73.
ZhangX. C.ChuX. W.FanC. Y.AndrasikF.ShiH. F.HuX. E. (2022). Sensation seeking and cyberbullying among Chinese adolescents: Examining the mediating roles of boredom experience and antisocial media exposure. Computers in Human Behavior, 130, Article 107185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107185
74.
ZhuP.ChiX.RyuH. B.Ariza-MontesA.HanH. (2022). Traveler pro-social behaviors at heritage tourism sites. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 901530. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.901530
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
