This article investigates how the distribution of income changes when the standard disposable income (DI) is replaced by an extended income (EI) concept that includes the three “I”s: indirect taxes, imputed rent, and in-kind benefits. Second, it assesses the distributional effects of the main types of tax-benefit instruments under different income concepts. The analysis covers three European countries (Belgium, Greece, and the United Kingdom) characterized by substantially different tax-benefit systems. The overall redistributive effect of the tax-benefit systems depends heavily on the income concept considered and the differences across countries are smaller when considering the EI. Moreover, the common use of a narrower income concept, such as the DI, can lead to the overestimation of the redistributive effect of the cash tax-benefit instruments (in relative terms), the extent of this varying across countries, due to the size and distribution of three “I”s and the adoption of the needs-adjusted equivalence scale.
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