The fundamental conditions and resources for health are peace, shelter, edu cation, food, income, a stable ecosystem, sustainable resources, social justice, and equity. Improvement in health requires a secure foundation in these basic prerequisites.1
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
World Health Organization, Health and Welfare ofCanada. Ottawa Charter forHealth Promotion. 1986.
2.
Israel BA, Schurman SJ: Social support, control, and the stress process, in Glanz K, Lewis F, Rimer B (eds.):Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research and Practice. San Francisco, CA, Jossey-Bass, 1990.
3.
Braithwaite RL, Lythcott N.: Community empowerment as a strategy for health promotion for black and other minority populations. JAMA261:282-283, 1989.
4.
House JS: Work Stress and Social Support. Reading, MA, Addison-Wesley, 1981.
5.
Freudenberg N., Golub M.: Health education, public policy and disease prevention: A case history of the New York City Coalition to End Lead Poisoning . Health Educ Q14:387-401, 1987.
6.
Montague P.: What we must do—A grass-roots offensive against toxics in the '90s. Workbook14:90-113, 1989.
7.
Rappaport J. : In praise of paradox: A social policy of empowerment over prevention. Am J Community Psychol9:1-25, 1981.
8.
Wallerstein NB: Empowerment Education : Freire's Theories Applied to Health. A Case Study of Alcohol Prevention for Indian and Hispanic Youth. Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1988.
9.
USDHHS Secretary's Task Force: Report on Black and Minority Health, Vol. 1. Executive Summary, August 1985.
10.
Haan MN, Kaplan GA, Camacho-Dickey T: Poverty and health: Prospective evidence from the Alameda County Study. Am J Epidemiol125:989-998, 1987.
11.
McKnight JL: Health and empowerment. Can J Public Health76:37-38, 1985.
12.
Albee G.: Powerlessness, Politics and Prevention. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, August 1986.
13.
Seligman M.: Helplessness. San Francisco, CA, Freeman, 1975.
14.
Ryan W.: Preventive services in the social context: Power, pathology, and prevention , in Bloom BL, Duck DP (eds.): Preventive Services in Mental Health Programs . Boulder, CO, Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education, 1967.
15.
Seeman M., Seeman TE: Health behavior and personal autonomy: A longitudinal study of the sense of control in illness. J Health Soc Behav24:144-160, 1983.
16.
Wallerstein N.: Powerlessness, empowerment, and health : Implications for health promotion programs . Am J Health Promotion6:197-205, 1992.
17.
Israel BA, Rounds KA: Social networks and social support: A synthesis for health educators . Adv Health Educ Promotion2:322-351, 1987.
18.
United Church of Christ, Commission for Racial Justice. Toxic Wastes and Race in the United States: A National Report on the Racial and Socioeconomic Characteristics of Communities with Hazardous Waste Sites. New York, 1987.
19.
Ryan W.: Blaming the Victim. New York, NY, Vintage Press, 1971.
20.
Freudenberg N.: Shaping the future of health education: From behavior change to social change. Health Educ Q6:372-377, 1978.
21.
Minkler M.: Health education, health promotion, and the open society: An historical perspective . Health Educ Q16:17-30, 1989.
22.
Freire P.: Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York, NY, The Seabury Press, 1970.
23.
Freire P.: Education for Critical Consciousness. New York, NY, The Seabury Press, 1973.
24.
Kindervatter S.: Nonformal education towards empowering. Chapter VII in Nonformal Education as an Empowering Process. Amherst, MA, Center for International Education, 1978.
25.
Rappaport J. : Terms of empowerment/exemplars of prevention: Toward a theory for community psychology. Am J Community Psychol15:121-144, 1987.
26.
Zimmerman MA : Empowerment theory: Psychological, organizational and community levels of analysis, in Rappaport J, Seidman E (eds.): Handbook of Community Psychology . New York, NY, Plenum Press (in press).
27.
Gutierrez LM : Coping with Stressful Life Events: An Empowerment Perspective. Working Paper , School of Social Work, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 1988 .
28.
Kieffer CH: The Emergence of Empowerment: The Development of Participatory Competence among Individuals in Citizen Organizations. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, Dissertation, 1981.
29.
Swift C., Levin G.: Empowerment: An emerging mental health technology. J Prim Prev8:71-94, 1987.
30.
Zimmerman MA , Rappaport J.: Citizen participation, perceived control, and psychological empowerment. Am J Community Psychol16:725-750, 1988.
31.
Labonte R.: Uniting for Healthy Communities. Paper presented at the opening session of the annual meeting of the American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C., November 9, 1992.
32.
Klein D.: Community Dynamic and Mental Health. New York, NY, John Wiley and Sons, 1968.
33.
Sarason SB: The Psychological Sense of Community: Prospects For a Community Psychology . San Francisco, CA, Jossey-Bass , 1984.
34.
Steuart GW: Social and Cultural Perspectives: Community Intervention and Mental Health . Paper presented at the Fourteenth Annual John W. Umstead Series of Distinguished Lectures, Raleigh, NC , 1978.
35.
Warren RL: Types of purposive social change at the community level, in Kramer RM, Specht H (eds.): Readings in Community Organization Practice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall, 1975.
36.
Warren RB, Warren DI: What's in a neighborhood? Chapter I in The Neighborhood Organizer's Handbook . South Bend, IN, University of Notre Dame Press, 1977.
37.
Wellman B., Leighton B.: Networks, neighborhoods and communities: Approaches to the study of the community question. Urban Affairs O 14:363-390, 1979.
38.
Heller K.: The return to community. Am J Community Psychol17:1-15, 1989.
39.
Bandura A.: Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. Am Psychol37:122-147, 1982.
40.
Rosenberg M: Society and the AdolescentSelf-Image. Princeton, NJ , Princeton University Press, 1965 .
Zimmerman MA : Taking aim on empowerment research: On the distinction between psychological and individual conceptions. Am J Community Psychol18:169-177, 1990.
43.
Schulz AJ, Israel BA, Zimmerman MA, Checkoway BN: Empowerment as a multilevel construct: Perceived control at the individual, organizational and community levels. Under review, 1994.
Gerschick TJ , Israel BA, Checkoway BN: Means of Empowerment in Individuals, Organizations, and Communities. Report on a retrieval conference, Ann Arbor, MI: Program on Conflict Management Alternatives , University of Michigan, 1990.
46.
Biegel D.: Help seeking and receiving in urban ethnic neighborhoods: Strategies for empowerment , in Rappaport J, Swift C, Hess R, (eds.): Studies in Empowerment: Steps Toward Understanding and Action . New York, NY, Haworth , 1984.
47.
Schulz AJ, Israel BA: Empowerment and Empowering Processes: A Theory Development Seminar Series, Academic Year 1988-89. Working paper, Ann Arbor, MI, University of Michigan, July 1990.
48.
Gruber J., Trickett EJ: Can we empower others? The paradox of empowerment in the governing of an alternative public school. Am J Community Psychol15:353-371, 1987.
49.
Bartunek J. , Keys C.: Power equalization in schools through organizational development. J Appl Behav Sci18:171-183, 1982.
50.
Horton M.: The Long Haul: An Autobiography. New York, NY, Doubleday, 1990.
51.
Cohen S, Evans G, Stokols D, Krantz D (eds.): Behavior, Health and Environmental Stress. New York, NY, Plenum, 1986.
52.
Kasl SV, Cooper CL (eds.): Stress and Health: Issues in Research Methodology. New York, NY, John Wiley, 1987.
53.
Pearlin LL: Role strains and personal stress, in Kaplan HB (ed.): Psychosocial Stress: Trends in Theory and Research . New York, NY, Academic Press, 1983.
54.
Cottington EM , House JS: Occupational stress and health: A multivariate relationship, in Baum AR, Hillsdale JE (eds.): Handbook of Psychology and Health. Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum , 1987.
55.
Holt R.: Occupational stress, in Goldberger L, Breznitz S (eds.): Handbook of Stress: Theoretical and Clinical Aspects. New York, NY, Free Press, 1982.
56.
Israel BA, Schurman SJ, House JS: Action research on occupational stress: Involving workers as researchers . Int J Health Serv19:135-155, 1989.
57.
Katz D., Kahn R.: The Social Psychology of Organizations. New York, NY, Wiley, 1978.
58.
Delongis A., Coyne JC, Dakof G, Folkman S, Lazarus RS: Relationship of daily hassles, uplifts and major life events to health status. Health Psychol1:119-136, 1982.
59.
Evans G., Cohen S.: Environmental stress, in Stokols D , Altman I (eds.): Handbook of Environmental Psychology, Vol 1. New York, NY, Wiley, 1987.
60.
Zimmerman MA , Zahniser JH: Refinements of sphere-specific measures of perceived control: Development of a sociopolitical control scale. J Community Psychol19:189-204, 1991.
61.
Zimmerman MA : The relationship between political efficacy and citizen participation: Construct validation studies. J Pers Assessment53:554-566, 1989.
62.
Stone RA, Levine AG: Reactions to collective stress: Correlates of active citizen participation . Prev Hum Serv4:152-177, 1985.
63.
Miller KI, and Monge PR: Participation, satisfaction and productivity: A meta-analytic review . Acad Management Rev29:727-753, 1986.
64.
Vogt JF, Murrell KL: Empowerment in Organizations: How to Spark Exceptional Performance . San Diego, CA, University Associates, Inc., 1990.
65.
Pertusati L. : Ethnic Consciousness in Native American Empowerment: A Case Study of Voice and Resistance. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 1993 .
66.
Rosenstone S: Separate and unequal : The Racial Divide: Strategies for Reducing Political and Economic Inequalities in the Detroit Area. Detroit Area Study and Research Program on Race and AmericanPolitics, December 1989.
67.
Hugentobler MK, Israel BA, Schurman SJ: An action research approach to workplace health: Integrating methods. Health Educ Q19:55-76, 1992.
68.
Susman GF, Evered RD: An assessment of the scientific merits of action research. Admin Sci Q23:582-603, 1978.
69.
Brown LD, Kaplan RE: Participative research in a factory, in Reason P, Rowan J (eds.): Human Inquiry. Chichester, Wiley , 1981.
70.
Elden JM: Sharing the research work: Participative research and its role demands , in Reason P, Rowan J (eds.): Human Inquiry. Chichester , Wiley, 1986.
71.
Kemmis S.: Action research, in Anderson DS, Blakers C (eds.): Youth, Transition and Social Research. Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1983.
72.
Peters M., Robinson V.: The origins and status of action research. J Appl Behav Sci20:113-124, 1984.
73.
Elden JM: Political efficacy at work: The connection between more autonomous forms of workplace organizations and more participatory politics. Am PoliticalSci Rev75:43-58, 1981.
74.
Israel BA, Schurman SJ, Hugentobler MK: Conducting action research: Relationships between organization members and researchers. J Appl Behav Sci28:74-101, 1992.
75.
Minkler M.: Improving health through community organization, in Glanz K, Lewis FM, Rimer BK (eds): Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research and Practice. San Francisco, CA, Jossey-Bass, 1990.
76.
Tweeten L., Brinkman GL: Mobilizing community resources for development, in Tweeten L, Brinkman GL (eds.): Micropolitan Development: Theory and Practice of Greater-Rural Economic Development . Ames, IA, The Iowa State University Press, 1976.
77.
Minkler M., Cox K.: Creating critical consciousness in health: Applications of Freire's philosophy and methods to the health care setting. Int J Health Serv10:311-322, 1980.
78.
Hope A., Timmel S.: Training for Transformation: A Handbook for Community Workers. Volumes 1-3, Gweru, Zimbabwe, Mambo Press, 1984 .
79.
Minkler M.: Building supportive ties and sense of community among inner-city elderly: The Tenderloin Senior Outreach Project. Health Educ Q12:303-314, 1985.
80.
Wallerstein N. , Bernstein E.: Empowerment education: Freire's ideas adapted to health education. Health Educ Q15:379-394, 1988.
81.
Thomas RP, Israel BA, Steuart GW: Cooperative problem-solving: The neighborhood self-help project, in Cleary HP, Kichen JM, Ensor PG (eds.): Advancing Health Through Education. Mountain View, CA, Mayfield , 1985.
82.
Checkoway BN , Norsman A.: Empowering citizens with disabilities. Community Dev J21:270-279, 1986.
83.
Gutierrez L., Lewis E.: Feminist organizing with women of color, in Rivera F, Erlich J (eds.): Community Organizing in a Diverse Society, Boston, MA,Allyn & Bacon, 1992.
84.
Tandon R., Brown D.: Organization building for rural development: An experiment in India . J Appl Behav Sci17:172-189, 1981.
85.
Moser C.: Mobilization is women's work: Struggles for Infrastructure in Guayaquil, Ecuador , in Moser C, Peake L (eds): Women, Human Settlements and Housing. New York, NY, Tavistock , 1987.
86.
Young E., Padilla M.: Mujeres unidas en accion: A popular education process. Harvard Educ Rev60:1-18, 1990.
87.
Israel BA, Schurman SJ, Hugentobler MK, House JS: A participatory action research approach to reducing occupational stress in the United States, in DiMartino V (ed.): Conditions of Work Digest, Geneva, Switzerland, International Labour Office, 1992.