Ever since some scientists and popular media put forward the idea that free will is an illusion, the question has risen what would happen if people stopped believing in free will. Psychological research has investigated this question by testing the consequences of experimentally weakening people’s free will beliefs. The results of these investigations have been mixed, with successful experiments and unsuccessful replications. This raises two fundamental questions: Can free will beliefs be manipulated, and do such manipulations have downstream consequences? In a meta-analysis including 145 experiments (95 unpublished), we show that exposing individuals to anti–free will manipulations decreases belief in free will and increases belief in determinism. However, we could not find evidence for downstream consequences. Our findings have important theoretical implications for research on free will beliefs and contribute to the discussion of whether reducing people’s belief in free will has societal consequences.
*AkinM.BraunI.DaenhardtK.FischerS.KollmannO.MüllerF.PistilloE.SchmidtK.StritzelC.UeffingD.WeberA.WerkleA.WilkeJ. (2016). Macht der Glaube an Willensfreiheit dankbarer? [Does the belief in free will increase gratefulness?] [Unpublished thesis].
2.
*AlquistJ. L.AinsworthS. E.BaumeisterR. F. (2013). Determined to conform: Disbelief in free will increases conformity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 80–86.
3.
*AlquistJ. L.AinsworthS. E.BaumeisterR. F.DalyM.StillmanT. F. (2015). The making of might-have-beens: Effects of free will belief on counterfactual thinking. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41, 268–283.
4.
Armijo-OlivoS.StilesC. R.HagenN. A.BiondoP. D.CummingsG. G. (2012). Assessment of study quality for systematic reviews: A comparison of the Cochrane collaboration risk of bias tool and the effective public health practice project quality assessment tool: Methodological research. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 18, 12–18.
5.
*BallE.-C.DegenD.FohrerA.GrunwaldM.HintzeS.HöhnV.KästelM.KoziolP.MatzM.PapadakisA.PorthT.RennerM.SeyderM.WillemsS.ZiskeA. (2016). Der Glaube an den freien Willen und die Neigung zur Konformität [The belief in free will and the tendency to conformity.] [Unpublished thesis].
6.
*BalodisK. (2016). Influence of belief in free will on intertemporal decisions [Unpublished bachelor thesis].
7.
BanduraA. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.
8.
*BastartJ.RedersdorffS.MartinotD. (2015). Le libre arbitre au service du jugement émis envers des victimes de sexism [Free will in the service of judging victims of sexism]. Psychologie Française, 60, 223–236.
9.
*BaumeisterR. F.MasicampoE.DeWallC. N. (2009). Prosocial benefits of feeling free: Disbelief in free will increases aggression and reduces helpfulness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 260–268.
10.
*BeckerL.KandtP.LeupeltA.MatthiesI. (2018). Das Ebenbild Gotttes oder ein Sklave seiner Triebe? [Unpublished thesis].
11.
*BlatzL.GenschowO.CrusiusJ. (2017). Untitled data [Data set].
12.
*BomkeN.GoldappM.SchlackA. (2017). Der Glaube an den freien Willen, Dualismus und Ambivalenz [Unpublished thesis].
13.
*BraemS.VermeylenL. (2016). Untitled data [Data set].
14.
BrassM.FurstenbergA.MeleA. R. (2019). Why neuroscience does not disprove free will. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 102, 251–263.
15.
ButtrickN. R.AczelB.AeschbachL. F.BakosB. E.BrühlmannF.ClaypoolH. M.HüffmeierJ.KovacsM.SchuepferK.SzecsiP.SzutsA.SzökeO.ThomaeM.TorkaA.WalkerR. J.WoodM. J. (2020). Many labs 5: Registered replication of Vohs and Schooler (2008), experiment 1. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 3(3), 429–438.
16.
CareyJ. M.PaulhusD. L. (2013). Worldview implications of believing in free will and/or determinism: Politics, morality, and punitiveness. Journal of Personality, 81, 130–141.
17.
CarpenterC. J. (2020). Meta-analyzing apples and oranges: How to make applesauce instead of fruit salad. Human Communication Research, 46, 322–333.
18.
CarterE. C.SchönbrodtF. D.GervaisW. M.HilgardJ. (2019). Correcting for bias in psychology: A comparison of meta-analytic methods. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 2, 115–144.
19.
CarusoG. D. (2014). (Un) just deserts: The dark side of moral responsibility. Southwest Philosophy Review, 30, 27–38.
20.
*CasparE. A.VuillaumeL. (2017). The influence of (dis) belief in free will on immoral behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 20.
21.
CheungM. W. L. (2014). Modeling dependent effect sizes with three-level meta-analyses: a structural equation modeling approach. Psychological Methods, 19, 211–229.
22.
*ChingB. H.-H.XuJ. T. (2018). The effects of gender neuroessentialism on transprejudice: An experimental study. Sex Roles, 78, 228–241.
*ClarkC. J.BaumeisterR. F.DittoP. H. (2017). Making punishment palatable: Belief in free will alleviates punitive distress. Consciousness and Cognition, 51, 193–211.
CraccoE.González-GarcíaC.HusseyI.BraemS.WisniewskiD. (2020). Cultural pressure and biased responding in free will attitudes. Royal Society Open Science, 7, 191824.
28.
*CrescioniA. W.BaumeisterR. F.AinsworthS. E.EntM.LambertN. M. (2016). Subjective correlates and consequences of belief in free will. Philosophical Psychology, 29, 41–63.
29.
CrickF. (1994). The astonishing hypothesis: The science search for the soul. Touchstone.
30.
*CroneD. L.LevyN. L. (2019). Are free will believers nicer people?(Four studies suggest not). Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10, 612–619.
31.
*DarrallA. (2017). Freiheit! Für unsere Handlungen, aber nicht für unseren Willen. Konsequenzen einer philosophischen Theorie zum freien Willen [Freedom! For our actions, but not for our will. Consequences of a philosophical theory of free will.] [Unpublished master’s thesis].
32.
DennettD. C. (2015). Elbow room: The varieties of free will worth wanting:. MIT Press.
33.
*De SouterL. (2017). The influence of belief in free will on pseudo-random behavior [Unpublished master thesis].
34.
*DielK.GenschowO. (2018). Untitled data [Data set].
35.
DoyenS.KleinO.PichonC.-L.CleeremansA. (2012). Behavioral priming: It’s all in the mind, but whose mind?PLOS ONE, 7, Article e29081.
36.
DubljevićV. (2013). Autonomy in neuroethics: Political and not metaphysical. AJOB Neuroscience, 4, 44–51.
37.
EbenC.ZhangC.CraccoE.BrassM.BillieuxJ.VerbruggenF. (2020). Are post-error adjustments influenced by beliefs in free will? A failure to directly replicate Rigoni, Wilquin, Brass and Burle, 2013. Royal Society Open Science, 7, 200664.
38.
*EvansJ. (2013). The moral psychology of determinism. Philosophical Psychology, 26, 639–661.
39.
Ewusi-BoisvertE.RacineE. (2018). A critical review of methodologies and results in recent research on belief in free will. Neuroethics, 11, 1–14.
40.
FeldmanG.FarhJ.-L.WongK. F. E. (2018). Agency beliefs over time and across cultures: Free will beliefs predict higher job satisfaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44, 304–317.
41.
FieldA. P.GillettR. (2010). How to do a meta-analysis. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 63, 665–694.
42.
FisherZ.TiptonE. (2015). Robumeta: An R-package for robust variance estimation in meta-analysis. arXiv:1503.02220.
43.
FrithC. D. (2012). The role of metacognition in human social interactions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 367, 2213–2223.
44.
FurnhamA.KirkcaldyB. D.LynnR. (1994). National attitudes to competitiveness, money, and work among young people: First, second, and third world differences. Human Relations, 47, 119–132.
45.
*GenschowO. (2019). Untitled data [Data set].
46.
GenschowO.HawickhorstH.RigoniD.AschermannE.BrassM. (2020). Professional judges’ disbelief in free will and punishment. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 12, 357–362.
47.
GenschowO.LangeJ. (in press). Belief in free will is related to internal attribution in self-perception. Social Psychological and Personality Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506211057711
48.
*GenschowO.RigoniD.BrassM. (2014). Untitled data [Data set].
49.
*GenschowO.RigoniD.BrassM. (2016a). Untitled data [Data set].
50.
*GenschowO.RigoniD.BrassM. (2016b). Untitled data [Data set].
51.
*GenschowO.RigoniD.BrassM. (2017a). Belief in free will affects causal attributions when judging others’ behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114, 10071–10076.
52.
*GenschowO.RigoniD.BrassM. (2017b). Untitled data [Data set].
53.
GenschowO.RigoniD.BrassM. (2019a). The hand of god or the hand of Maradona? Believing in free will increases perceived intentionality of others’ behavior. Consciousness and Cognition, 70, 80–87.
54.
*GenschowO.RigoniD.BrassM. (2019b). Untitled data [Data set].
55.
GenschowO.VehlowB. (2021). Free to blame? The role of free will belief in victim blaming. Consciousness and Cognition, 88, 103074.
56.
GenschowO.WestfalM.CrusiusJ.BartoschL.FeikesK. I.PallaschN.WozniakM. (2021). Does social psychology persist over half a century? A direct replication of Cialdini et al.’s (1975) classic door-in-the-face technique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 120, e1–e7.
57.
Giner-SorollaR.EmbleyJ.JohnsonL. (2016). Replication of Vohs & Schooler (2008, PS, Study 1). https://osf.io/i29mh/
58.
*GoodyearK.LeeM. R.O’HaraM.ChernyakS.WalterH.ParasuramanR.KruegerF. (2016). Oxytocin influences intuitions about the relationship between belief in free will and moral responsibility. Social Neuroscience, 11, 88–96.
59.
GreeneJ.CohenJ. (2004). For the law, neuroscience changes nothing and everything. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 359, 1775–1785.
HallettM. (2007). Volitional control of movement: The physiology of free will. Clinical Neurophysiology, 118, 1179–1192.
62.
*HanischA. (2015). Frei handeln oder frei wollen? Experimentelle Manipulation des Glaubens an Willens- und Handlungsfreiheit [Acting freely or wanting to act freely? Experimental manipulation of the belief in free will and action.] [Unpublished bachelor thesis].
63.
*HannikainenI.CabralG.MacheryE.StruchinerN. (2017). A deterministic worldview promotes approval of state paternalism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 70, 251–259.
64.
*HarmsJ.LiketK.ProtzkoJ.SchölmerichV. (2017). Free to help? An experiment on free will belief and altruism. PLOS ONE, 12, Article e0173193.
65.
*HarpsterR. (2019). Untitled data [Data set].
66.
HarrisS. (2012). Free will. Simon and Schuster.
67.
HedgesL. V.TiptonE.JohnsonM. C. (2010). Robust variance estimation in meta-regression with dependent effect size estimates. Research Synthesis Methods, 1, 39–65.
68.
HempelS.MilesJ. N.BoothM. J.WangZ.MortonS. C.ShekelleP. G. (2013). Risk of bias: A simulation study of power to detect study-level moderator effects in meta-analysis. Systematic Reviews, 2, 107.
69.
*HighhouseS.RadaT. B. (2015). Different worldviews explain perceived effectiveness of different employment tests. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 23, 109–119.
70.
*JettinghoffW. (2017). Untitled data [Data set].
71.
KellerJ. (2005). In genes we trust: The biological component of psychological essentialism and its relationship to mechanisms of motivated social cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 686–702.
72.
*LantianA.BadeaC. (2019). Untitled data [Data set].
73.
LibetB.GleasonC. A.WrightE. W.PearlD. K. (1983). Time of conscious intention to act in relation to onset of cerebral activity (readiness-potential) the unconscious initiation of a freely voluntary act. Brain, 106, 623–642.
74.
LibetB.WrightE. W.GleasonC. A. (1993). Readiness-potentials preceding unrestricted’ spontaneous’ vs. pre-planned voluntary acts. In LibetB. (Ed.), Neurophysiology of consciousness (pp. 229–242). Birkhäuser.
75.
LipseyM. W.WilsonD. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. SAGE.
76.
*LynnM.Van DesselP.BrassM. (2013). The influence of high-level beliefs on self-regulatory engagement: Evidence from thermal pain stimulation. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, Article 614.
77.
*MacKenzieM. J. (2015). How does free will belief influence guilt? [Unpublished manuscript].
78.
*MacKenzieM. J.VohsK. D.BaumeisterR. F. (2014). You didn’t have to do that: Belief in free will promotes gratitude. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 1423–1434.
79.
MarkusH. R.KitayamaS. (2003). Models of agency: Sociocultural diversity in the construction of action. In Murphy-BermanV.BermanJ. J. (Eds.), Cross-cultural differences in perspectives on the self (pp. 18–74). University of Nebraska Press.
80.
MartinN. D.RigoniD.VohsK. D. (2017). Free will beliefs predict attitudes toward unethical behavior and criminal punishment: A global analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114, 7325–7330.
81.
*MelcherW. (2016). Untitled data [Data set].
82.
*MelcherW. (2019). Free will in psychological research: Considerations on methodic procedure and reproducibility of results. Leuphana University Lüneburg.
83.
*MercierB. (2017). Untitled data [Data set].
84.
*MercierB.WiwadD.PiffP. K.AkninL. B.RobinsonA. R.ShariffA.VazireS. (2020). Does Belief in Free Will Increase Support for Economic Inequality?Collabra: Psychology, 6, 25.
85.
*MonroeA. E. (2018). Untitled data [Data set].
86.
*MonroeA. E.BradyG.MalleB. F. (2017). This isn’t the free will worth looking for general free will beliefs do not influence moral judgments, agent-specific choice ascriptions do. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8, 191–199.
87.
*MonroeA. E.MalleB. F. (2010a). From uncaused will to conscious choice: The need to study, not speculate about people’s folk concept of free will. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 1, 211–224.
88.
*MonroeA. E.MalleB. F. (2010b). Untitled data [Data set].
89.
*MoynihanA. B.IgouE. R. (2019). Untitled data [Data set].
90.
*MoynihanA. B.IgouE. R.van TilburgW. A. (2019). Lost in the crowd: Conformity as escape following disbelief in free will. European Journal of Social Psychology, 49, 503–520.
NadelhofferT. (2011). The threat of shrinking agency and free will disillusionism. Conscious Will and Responsibility: A Tribute to Benjamin Libet, 173–188.
93.
*NadelhofferT. (2012). Untitled data [Data set].
94.
*NadelhofferT.ShepardJ.CroneD. L.EverettJ. A.EarpB. D.LevyN. (2020). Does encouraging a belief in determinism increase cheating? Reconsidering the value of believing in free will. Cognition, 203, 104342.
95.
NadelhofferT.ShepardJ.NahmiasE.SripadaC.RossL. T. (2014). The free will inventory: Measuring beliefs about agency and responsibility. Consciousness and Cognition, 25, 27–41.
96.
NahmiasE.MorrisS. G.NadelhofferT.TurnerJ. (2005). Surveying freedom: Folk intuitions about free will and moral responsibility. Philosophical Psychology, 18, 561–584.
97.
NahmiasE.MorrisS. G.NadelhofferT.TurnerJ. (2006). Is incompatibilism intuitive?Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 73, 28–53.
98.
NicholsS. (2004). The folk psychology of free will: Fits and starts. Mind & Language, 19, 473–502.
99.
NicholsS. (2006). Folk intuitions on free will. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 6, 57–86.
100.
NicholsS.KnobeJ. (2007). Moral responsibility and determinism: The cognitive science of folk intuitions. Nous, 41, 663–685.
101.
*Open Science Collaboration. (2015). Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science, 349, aac4716.
102.
PaulhusD. L.CareyJ. M. (2011). The FAD–Plus: Measuring lay beliefs regarding free will and related constructs. Journal of Personality Assessment, 93, 96–104.
103.
PereboomD. (2006). Living without free will. Cambridge University Press.
104.
PettyR. E.KrosnickJ. A. (2014). Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences. Psychology Press.
105.
*PlaksJ. E.RobinsonJ. S. (2015). Construal level and free will beliefs shape perceptions of actors’ proximal and distal intent. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, Article 777.
106.
PolaninJ. R.Tanner-SmithE. E.HennessyE. A. (2016). Estimating the difference between published and unpublished effect sizes: A meta-review. Review of Educational Research, 86, 207–236.
107.
*ProtzkoJ.GenschowO. (2018). Untitled data [Data set].
*ProtzkoJ.OuimetteB.SchoolerJ. (2016). Believing there is no free will corrupts intuitive cooperation. Cognition, 151, 6–9.
110.
RacineE.NguyenV.SaigleV.DubljevicV. (2017). Media portrayal of a landmark neuroscience experiment on free will. Science and Engineering Ethics, 23, 989–1007.
111.
RakosR. F.LaureneK. R.SkalaS.SlaneS. (2008). Belief in free will: Measurement and conceptualization innovations. Behavior and Social Issues, 17, 20–40.
112.
*RangelU.KellerJ. (2011). Essentialism goes social: Belief in social determinism as a component of psychological essentialism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 1056–1078.
113.
*RigoniD. (n.d.). Untitled data [Data set].
114.
RigoniD.BrassM. (2014). From intentions to neurons: Social and neural consequences of disbelieving in free will. Topoi, 33, 5–12.
115.
*RigoniD.KühnS.GaudinoG.SartoriG.BrassM. (2012). Reducing self-control by weakening belief in free will. Consciousness and Cognition, 21, 1482–1490.
116.
*RigoniD.KühnS.SartoriG.BrassM. (2011). Inducing disbelief in free will alters brain correlates of preconscious motor preparation the brain minds whether we believe in free will or not. Psychological Science, 22, 613–618.
117.
*RigoniD.PourtoisG.BrassM. (2015). “Why should I care?” Challenging free will attenuates neural reaction to errors. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10, 262–268.
118.
*RigoniD.TragerB. M.RysW.BrassM.VallacherR.VohsK. D. (2016). The importance of being earnest: Valuing honesty attenuates anti-social consequences of disbelieving in free will [Unpublished manuscript].
119.
*RigoniD.WilquinH.BrassM.BurleB. (2013). When errors do not matter: Weakening belief in intentional control impairs cognitive reaction to errors. Cognition, 127, 264–269.
120.
RodgersM. A.PustejovskyJ. E. (2020). Evaluating meta-analytic methods to detect selective reporting in the presence of dependent effect sizes. Psychological Methods, 26, 141–160.
121.
RoseD.NicholsS. (2013). The lesson of bypassing. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 4, 599–619.
122.
RotterJ. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80, 1–28.
123.
SaigleV.DubljevićV.RacineE. (2018). The impact of a landmark neuroscience study on free will: A qualitative analysis of articles using Libet and colleagues’ methods. AJOB Neuroscience, 9, 29–41.
124.
SarkissianH.ChatterjeeA.De BrigardF.KnobeJ.NicholsS.SirkerS. (2010). Is belief in free will a cultural universal?Mind & Language, 25, 346–358.
125.
SchoolerJ. W. (2010). What science tells us about free will. In BaumeisterR. F.MeleA. R.VohsK. D. (Eds.), Free will and consciousness: How might they work? (pp. 191–218). Oxford University Press.
126.
*SchoolerJ. W. (2014). Untitled data [Data set].
127.
SchoolerJ. W.NadelhofferT.NahmiasE.VohsK. D. (2014). Measuring and manipulating beliefs and behaviors associated with free will. In MeleA. R. (Ed.), Surrounding free will: Philosophy, psychology, neuroscience (pp. 72–94). Oxford University Press.
128.
*SchragY. (n.d.). Untitled data [Data set].
129.
*SchragY.TremeaA.LaggerC.OhanaN.MohrC. (2016). Pro free will priming enhances “risk-taking” behavior in the Iowa gambling task, but not in the balloon analogue risk task: Two independent priming studies. PLOS ONE, 11, Article e0152297.
130.
*SeminckN. (2019). The influence of belief in free will on imitation of inappropriate behavior [Unpublished master thesis].
131.
*SetoE. (n.d.). Untitled data [Data set].
132.
*SetoE. (2017). The interplay of true self-knowledge on belief in free will and moral outcomes [Unpublished dissertation].
133.
*SetoE.HicksJ. A. (2016). Disassociating the agent from the self: Undermining belief in free will diminishes true self-knowledge. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7, 726–734.
134.
*SetoE.KimJ.HicksJ. A. (2020). The illusion of time: Testing the bidirectional relationship between belief in free will and temporal horizons. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 12, 176–185.
135.
ShariffA. F.GreeneJ. D.KarremansJ. C.LuguriJ. B.ClarkC. J.SchoolerJ. W.BaumeisterR. F.VohsK. D. (2014). Free will and punishment: A mechanistic view of human nature reduces retribution. Psychological Science, 25, 1563–1570.
136.
ShariffA. F.VohsK. D. (2014). The world without free will. Scientific American, 310, 76–79.
137.
ShepardJ.ReuterS. (2012). Neuroscience, choice, and the free will debate. AJOB Neuroscience, 3, 7–11.
138.
ShepherdJ. (2012). Free will and consciousness: Experimental studies. Consciousness and Cognition, 21, 915–927.
139.
*SillerL. (2019). Glaube an den freien Willen: Halten sich die Effekte einer experimentellen Manipulation über die Zeit? [Belief in free will: Do the effects of experimental manipulation hold over time?] [Unpublished master thesis].
140.
SimonsohnU.NelsonL. D.SimmonsJ. P. (2014). P-curve: A key to the file-drawer. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143, 534–547.
SlameckaN. J.GrafP. (1978). The generation effect: Delineation of a phenomenon. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4, 592–604.
143.
SmilanskyS. (2000). Free will and illusion. Oxford University Press.
144.
SmilanskyS. (2002). Free will, fundamental dualism, and the centrality of illusion. In KaneR. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of free will (pp. 489–505). Oxford University Press.
145.
*SnoeckA. (2019). The effect of disbelief in free will on prejudice toward Arabic people [Unpublished master thesis].
146.
SoonC. S.BrassM.HeinzeH.-J.HaynesJ.-D. (2008). Unconscious determinants of free decisions in the human brain. Nature Neuroscience, 11, 543–545.
147.
StanleyT. D. (2017). Limitations of PET-PEESE and other meta-analysis methods. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8, 581–591.
148.
StanleyT. D.DoucouliagosH. (2014). Meta-regression approximations to reduce publication selection bias. Research Synthesis Methods, 5, 60–78.
149.
SterneJ. A. C.EggerM. (2005). Regression methods to detect publication and other bias in meta-analysis. In RothsteinH. R.SuttonA. J.BorensteinM. (Eds.), Publication bias in meta-analysis: Prevention, assessment and adjustments (pp. 99–110). Wiley.
150.
*StillmanT. F.BaumeisterR. F. (2010). Guilty, free, and wise: Determinism and psychopathy diminish learning from negative emotions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 951–960.
151.
StillmanT. F.BaumeisterR. F.VohsK. D.LambertN. M.FinchamF. D.BrewerL. E. (2010). Personal philosophy and personnel achievement: Belief in free will predicts better job performance. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1, 43–50.
152.
StroebeW.StrackF. (2014). The alleged crisis and the illusion of exact replication. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9, 59–71.
153.
Tanner-SmithE. E.TiptonE. (2014). Robust variance estimation with dependent effect sizes: Practical considerations including a software tutorial in Stata and SPSS. Research Synthesis Methods, 5, 13–30.
154.
Tanner-SmithE. E.TiptonE.PolaninJ. R. (2016). Handling complex meta-analytic data structures using robust variance estimates: A tutorial in R. Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology, 2, 85–112.
155.
*ThelenA. (2018). Der Einfluss des Glaubens an einen freien Willen auf selbstwertdienliche Verzerrungen [The influence of belief in free will on self-serving biases] [Unpublished master thesis].
156.
TiptonE. (2015). Small sample adjustments for robust variance estimation with meta-regression. Psychological Methods, 20, 375–393.
157.
TiptonE.PustejovskyJ. E. (2015). Small-sample adjustments for tests of moderators and model fit using robust variance estimation in meta-regression. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 40, 604–634.
158.
*TragerB. (2016). Untitled data [Data set].
159.
Van BavelJ. J.Mende-SiedleckiP.BradyW. J.ReineroD. A. (2016). Contextual sensitivity in scientific reproducibility. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113, 6454–6459.
160.
*Van DesselP. (2012). Untitled data [Data set].
161.
Van InwagenP. (1983). An essay on free will. MIT Press.
162.
*VassenaE. (2019). Untitled data [Data set].
163.
VeltenE. (1968). A laboratory task for induction of mood states. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 6, 473–482.
164.
ViechtbauerW. (2010). Conducting meta-analyses in R with the Metafor package. Journal of Statistical Software, 36, 1–48.
165.
VineyW.WaldmanD. A.BarchilonJ. (1982). Attitudes toward punishment in relation to beliefs in free will and determinism. Human Relations, 35, 939–949.
166.
*VohsK. D.SchoolerJ. W. (2008). The value of believing in free will encouraging a belief in determinism increases cheating. Psychological Science, 19, 49–54.
167.
*VonaschA. J.ClarkC. J.LauS.VohsK. D.BaumeisterR. F. (2017). Ordinary people associate addiction with loss of free will. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 5, 56–66.
168.
WaldmanD. A.VineyW.BellP. A.BennettJ. B.HessS. (1983). Internal and external locus of control in relation to beliefs in free will and determinism. Psychological Reports, 53, 631–634.
169.
WebbT. L.SheeranP. (2006). Does changing behavioral intentions engender behavior change? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 249–268.
170.
WegnerD. (2002). The illusion of free will. MIT Press.
171.
WisniewskiD.DeutschländerR.HaynesJ.-D. (2019). Free will beliefs are better predicted by dualism than determinism beliefs across different cultures. PLOS ONE, 14, Article e0221617.
