Reports estimate at least one child in every general education classroom in the U.S. has ADHD. Thus, teachers should enter the classroom with an accurate working knowledge of ADHD and the skills to respond effectively to support the development of these students. The present study tested the following research questions (RQs): (RQ1) How knowledgeable are preservice teachers about ADHD? (RQ2) What are pre-service teachers’ naturalistic responses to students with ADHD? Are pre-service teachers’ (RQ3) knowledge of ADHD, (RQ4) stress, and (RQ5) mindfulness skills associated with three types of responses to working with students with ADHD: evaluation of social/behavioral problems, emotional distress, and investment in treatment and classroom practices? (RQ6) Does mindfulness moderate the association between stress and teachers’ responses to students with ADHD?
Method:
Participants were 101 education majors in a teacher education program at a large Southeastern university in the United States. Multivariate regressions were employed to assess RQs 3-6.
Results:
Pre-service teachers correctly answered 52% of items (SD = 0.15) measuring knowledge of ADHD. There were no significant associations between knowledge of ADHD, stress, and mindfulness skills and pre-service teachers’ responses to students with ADHD, nor did mindfulness moderate the association between stress and outcomes. However, pre-service teachers with previous experience teaching students with ADHD perceived students’ behavioral challenges as more serious than those without experience.
Conclusion:
Results indicated that pre-service teachers lacked comprehensive knowledge of ADHD but responded to students with ADHD in a supportive manner. Notably, these findings indicate that teachers entering the workforce within the next two years are willing to implement supportive practices for students with ADHD. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
AguiarA. P.KielingR. R.CostaA. C.ChardosimN.DornelesB. V.AlmeidaM. R.MazzucaA. C.KielingC.RohdeL. A. (2014). Increasing teachers’ knowledge about ADHD and learning disorders: An investigation on the role of a psychoeducational intervention. Journal of Attention Disorders, 18(8), 691–698. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054712453171
2.
American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.).
3.
AndersonD. L.WattS. E.NobleW.ShanleyD. C. (2012). Knowledge of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and attitudes toward teaching children with ADHD: The role of teaching experience. Psychology in the Schools, 49(6), 511–525. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21617
4.
AndrewsA.McCabeM.Wideman-JohnstonT. (2014). Mental health issues in the schools: Are educators prepared?The Journal of Mental Health Training, Education, and Practice, 9(4), 261–272. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMHTEP-11-2013-0034
5.
BekleB. (2004). Knowledge and attitudes about Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A comparison between practicing teachers and undergraduate education students. Journal of Attention Disorders, 7(3), 151–161. https://doi.org/10.1177/108705470400700303
6.
Blotnicky-GallantP.MartinC.McGonnellM.CorkumP. (2015). Nova Scotia teachers’ ADHD knowledge, beliefs, and classroom management practices. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 30(1), 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573514542225
7.
BradshawC. P.MitchellM. M.LeafP. J. (2010). Examining the effects of schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports on student outcomes: Results from a randomized controlled effectiveness trial in elementary schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 12(3), 133–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300709334798
8.
CanuW. H.MancilE. B. (2012). An examination of teacher trainees’ knowledge of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. School Mental Health, 4, 105–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-012-9071-3
Clunies-RossP.LittleE.KienhuisM. (2008). Self-reported and actual use of proactive and reactive classroom management strategies and their relationship with teacher stress and student behaviour. Educational Psychology, 28(6), 693–710. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410802206700
11.
ColesE. K.OwensJ. S.SerranoV. J.SlavecJ.EvansS. W. (2015). From consultation to student outcomes: The role of teacher knowledge, skills, and beliefs in increasing integrity in classroom management strategies. School Mental Health, 7, 34–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-015-9143-2
12.
CreswellJ. D.LindsayE. K. (2014). How does mindfulness training affect health? A mindfulness stress buffering account. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(6), 401–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414547415
13.
DahlV.RamakrishnanA.SpearsA. P.JorgeA.LuJ.BigioN. A.ChackoA. (2020). Psychoeducation interventions for parents and teachers of children and adolescents with ADHD: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 32, 257–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-019-09691-3
14.
DanielsonM. L.BitskoR. H.GhandourR. M.HolbrookJ. R.KoganM. D.BlumbergS. J. (2018). Prevalence of parent-reported ADHD diagnosis and associated treatment among U.S. children and adolescents, 2016. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 47(2), 199–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2017.1417860
15.
DuPaulG. J.WeyandtL. L.JanusisG. M. (2011) ADHD in the classroom: Effective intervention strategies. Theory Into Practice, 50(1), 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2011.534935
16.
EdwardsA. L. (1957). The social desirability variable in personality assessment and research. Dryden.
17.
FaulF.ErdfelderE.LangA. G.BuchnerA. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03193146
18.
FloressM. T.JenkinsL. N.CaldwellS.CaldwellS. (2022). Teacher stress and self-efficacy relative to managing student behavior. Contemporary School Psychology, 28, 257–269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-022-00439-z
19.
FroehlichT. E.LanphearB. P.EpsteinJ. N.BarbaresiW. J.KatusicS. K.KahnR. S. (2007). Prevalence, recognition, and treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in a national sample in US children. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 161(9), 857–864. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.161.9.857
20.
GaastraG. F.GroenY.TuchaL.TuchaO. (2020). Unknown, unloved? Teachers’ reported use and effectiveness of classroom management strategies for students with symptoms of ADHD. Child and Youth Care Forum, 49(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10566-019-09515-7/TABLES/3
21.
GengG.MidfordR.BuckworthJ. (2015). Investigating the stress levels of early childhood, primary, and secondary pre-service teachers during teaching practicum. Journal of Teacher Education for Sustainability, 17(1), 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1515/jtes-2015-0003
22.
GrahamA.PhelpsR.MaddisonC.FitzgeraldR. (2011). Supporting children’s mental health in schools: Teacher views. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 17(4), 479–496. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2011.580525
23.
GreeneR. W.BeszterczeyS. K.KatzensteinT.ParkK.GoringJ. (2002). Are students with ADHD more stressful to teach? Patterns of teacher stress in an elementary school sample. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 10(2), 79–89. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F10634266020100020201
24.
GuJ.StraussC.CraneC.BarnhoferT.KarlA.CavanaghK.KuykenW. (2016). Examining the factor structure of the 39-item and 15-item versions of the five facet mindfulness questionnaire before and after mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for people with recurrent depression. Psychological Assessment, 28(7), 791–802. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000263
25.
HepburnS.CarrollA.MccuaigL. (2021). Promoting stress management and wellbeing for teachers, a pilot study. Frontiers in Education, 6, Article 744227. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.744227
26.
HermanK. C.Hickmon-RosaJ.ReinkeW. M. (2018). Empirically derived profiles of teacher stress, burnout, self-efficacy, and coping, and associated student outcomes. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 20(2), 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300717732066
27.
JenningsP. A.BrownJ. L.FrankJ. L.DoyleS.OhY.DavisR.RasheedD.DeWeeseA.DeMauroA. A.ChamH.GreenbergM. T. (2017). Impacts of the CARE for teachers program on teachers’ social and emotional competence and classroom interactions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(7), 1010–1028. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000187.supp
28.
JenningsP. A.GreenbergM. T. (2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 491–525. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308325693
29.
JohnsonS.CooperC.CartwrightS.DonaldI.TaylorP. J.MilletC. (2005). The experience of work-related stress across occupations. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 20(2), 178–187. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940510579803
JonesH. A.Chronis-TuscanoA. (2008). Efficacy of teacher in-service training for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychology in the Schools, 45(10), 918–929. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20342
32.
JormA. F.KortenA. E.JacombP. A.ChristensenH.RodgersB.PollittP. (1997). “Mental health literacy”: A survey of the public’s ability to recognize mental disorders and their beliefs about the effectiveness of treatment. The Medical Journal of Australia, 166(4), 182–186. https://doi.org/10.5694/j.1326-5377.1997.tb140071.x
33.
JunkerR.GoldB.HolodynskiM. (2021). Classroom management of pre-service and beginning teachers: From dispositions to performance. International Journal of Modern Education Studies, 5(2), 339–363. http://dx.doi.org/10.51383/ijonmes.2021.137
34.
Kabat-ZinnJ. (1994). Mindfulness meditation for everyday life. Hyperion.
35.
KnowltonD. (1998). Is It ADHD, LD, depression or allergies? Considerations for appropriate diagnosis. Special Services in the Schools, 13(1–2), 85–93. https://doi.org/10.1300/J008v13n01_05
KosJ. M.RichdaleA. L.JacksonM. S. (2004). Knowledge about Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A comparison of in-service and pre-service teachers. Psychology in the Schools, 41(5), 517–526. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10178
38.
LarsonM.CookC. R.FiatA.LyonA. R. (2018). Stressed teachers don’t make good implementers: Examining the interplay between stress reduction and intervention fidelity. School Mental Health, 10(1), 61–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-018-9250-y
39.
LatoucheA. P.GascoigneM. (2019). In-Service training for increasing teachers’ ADHD knowledge and self-efficacy. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23(3), 270–281. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054717707045
40.
LazarusR. S.FolkmanS. (1987). Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping. European Journal of Personality, 1(3), 141–169. https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fper.2410010304
41.
LeeY.LammersH. S.WitrukE. (2015). Knowledge of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A comparison of pre-service teachers in primary and special education in Germany. Health Psychology Report, 3(3), 237–245. https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr.2015.54104
42.
LiangL.GaoX. (2016). Pre-service and in-service secondary school teachers’ knowledge about Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and attitudes toward students with ADHD. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 63(3), 369–383. https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2015.1123231
MarcattoF.Di BlasL.LuisO.FestaS.FerranteD. (2022). The perceived occupational stress scale: A brief tool for measuring workers’ perceptions of stress at work. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 38(4), 293–306. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000677
McGoeyK. E.RispoliK. M.VeneskyL. G.SchaffnerK. F.McGuirkL.MarshallS. (2014). A preliminary investigation into teacher perceptions of the barriers to behavior intervention implementation. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 30(4), 375–390. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377903.2014.950441
47.
Mohr-JensenC.Steen-JensenT.Bang-SchnackM.ThingvadH. (2019). What do primary and secondary school teachers know about ADHD in children? Findings from a systematic review and a representative, nationwide sample of Danish teachers. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23(3), 206–219. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054715599206
48.
MonteiroE. M.SimsW. (2023). Using a brief web-based, on demand training to improve preservice knowledge of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychology in the Schools, 60(10), 3266–3283. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22915
49.
MooreD. A.RussellA. E.MatthewsJ.FordT. J.RogersM.UkoumunneO. C.KnealeD.Thompson-CoonJ.SutcliffeK.NunnsM.ShawL.Gwernan-JonesR. (2018). School-based interventions for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A systematic review with multiple synthesis methods. Review of Education, 6(3), 209–263. https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3149
50.
MohammedA. (2019). Saudi Arabian pre-service special education teachers knowledge of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Global Journal of Health Science, 11(3), 32–43. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v11n3p32
51.
OhanJ. L.CormierN.HeppS. L.VisserT.A. W.StrainM. C. (2008). Does knowledge about attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder impact teachers’ reported behaviors and perceptions?School Psychology Quarterly, 23(3), 436–449. https://doi.org/10.1037/1045-3830.23.3.436
52.
OhanJ. L.VisserT. A. (2009). Why is there a gender gap in children presenting for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder services?Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 38(5), 650–660. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410903103627
53.
OhanJ. L.ToryA. W.StrainM. C.AllenL. (2011). Teachers’ and education students’ perceptions of and reactions to children with and without diagnostic label “ADHD”. Journal of School Psychology, 49, 81–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2010.10.001
54.
OwensJ. S.ColesE. K.EvansS.W.HimawanL. K.Girio-HerreraE.HoldawayA. S.ZoromskiA. K.SchambergT.SchulteA. C. (2017). Using multi-component consultation to increase the integrity with which teachers implement behavioral classroom interventions: A pilot study. School Mental Health, 9(2), 218–234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9217-4
55.
PaquetteK. R.RiegS.A. (2016). Stressors and coping strategies through the lens of Early Childhood/Special Education pre-service teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education: An International Journal of Research and Studies, 57(1), 51–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.03.009
56.
PelhamW. E.FabianoG. A.MassettiG. M. (2005). Evidence-based assessment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34(3), 449–476. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3403_5
57.
PolanczykG. V.WillcuttE. G.SalumG. A.KielingC.RohdeL. A. (2014). ADHD prevalence estimates across three decades: An updated systematic review and meta-regression analysis. International Journal of Epidemiology, 43(2), 434–442. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyt261
58.
PoznanskiB.HartK. C.CramerE. (2018). Are teachers ready? Pre-service teacher knowledge of classroom management and ADHD. School Mental Health, 10(3), 301–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-018-9259-2
59.
RoeserR. W.MashburnA. J.SkinnerE. A.CholesJ. R.TaylorC.RickertN. P.PinelaC.RobbelothJ.SaxtonE.WeissE.CullenM.SorensonJ. (2022). Mindfulness training improves middle school teachers’ occupational health, well-being, and interactions with students in their most stressful classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology, 114(2), 408–425. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000675
60.
RoeserR. W.Schonert-ReichlK. A.JhaA.CullenM.WallaceL.WilenskyR.OberleE.ThomsonK.TaylorC.HarrisonJ. (2013). Mindfulness training and reductions in teacher stress and burnout: Results from two randomized, waitlist-control field trials. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 787–804. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032093
SaxL.KautzK. J. (2003). Who first suggests the diagnosis of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder?Annals of Family Medicine, 1(3), 171–174. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.3
63.
SchaferT.SchwarzM. A. (2019). The meaningfulness of effect sizes in psychological research: Differences between sub-disciplines and the impact of potential biases. Frontiers Psychology, 10, Article 813. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00813
64.
SciuttoM. J. (2015). ADHD Knowledge, misconceptions, and treatment acceptability. Journal of Attention Disorders, 19(2), 91–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054713493316
65.
SciuttoM. J.NolfiC. J.BluhmC. (2004). Effects of child gender and symptom type on referrals for ADHD by elementary school teachers. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 12(4), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1177/10634266040120040501
SoroaM.GorostiagaA.BalluerkN. (2013). Review of tools used for assessing teachers’ level of knowledge with regards Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). In BanerjeeS. (Ed.), Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in children and adolescents (pp. 151–171). InTech. https://doi.org/10.5772/54277
68.
StaffA. I.OosterlaanJ.van der OordS.SwartF.ImerajL.van den HoofdakkerB. J.LumanM. (2022). Teacher feedback, student ADHD behavior, and the teacher–student relationship: Are these related?. School Mental Health, 15(1), 287–299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-022-09550-1
69.
SteinerN. J.SheldrickR. C.FrenetteE. C.ReneK. M.PerrinE. C. (2014). Classroom behavior of participants with ADHD compared with peers: Influence of teaching format and grade level. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 30(3), 209–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377903.2014.896297
70.
TaieS.GoldringR. (2020). Characteristics of public and private elementary and secondary school teachers in the US: Results from the 2017–18 national teacher and principal survey first look (Report No. NCES 2020- 142). US Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2020142
71.
TangY. Y.HölzelB. K.PosnerM. I. (2015). The neuroscience of mindfulness meditation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16(4), 213–225. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3916
72.
WardR. J.BristowS. J.KovshoffH.CorteseS.KreppnerJ. (2022). The effects of ADHD teacher training programs on teachers and pupils: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Attention Disorders, 26(2), 225–244. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054720972801
73.
WarshawP.DavisF. (1985). Disentangling behavioral intention and behavioral expectation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21(3), 213–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(85)90017-4
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
