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Abstract

In this study, it was aimed to improve couscous chemical and functional properties by replacing wheat flour used in traditional couscous production with pea and mung bean flours as different protein sources at the rate of 20% and with ginger and turmeric powders as antioxidant sources at the rate of 1%, 2%, and 3%. Sixteen different couscous formulations were produced. In those couscous samples, some chemical contents (moisture, ash, protein, fat, and phytic acid), bioactive contents (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical, ferric reducing antioxidant power assay and ion reducing antioxidant capacity antioxidant activities and total phenolic content), color (L*, a*, and b*), firmness and cooking properties were determined. The use of pea and mung bean flour decreased the L* value of the samples, while turmeric increased the yellowness values. In addition, the weight increase and firmness values of couscous decreased with the use of leguminous flours and antioxidant sources. The use of peas and mung beans significantly increased the amount of ash, protein, and phytic acid values compared to the control. The antioxidant activity value of ion-reducing antioxidant activity capacity increased by 7 and 5 times, and the total phenolic contents increased approximately 2 times, respectively, in the samples with the substitution of 3% turmeric and pea and mung bean flour. Pea flour and mung bean flour provided a significant increase in the amounts of Ca, Mg, K, and Zn. The combination of pea flour with 3% turmeric powder resulted in couscous with superior nutritional and functional properties.

Keywords

Couscous turmeric ginger functional food legume flour

INTRODUCTION

Couscous is a Berber dish with a history of approximately 2000 years and spread to various parts of the world with the migration of Muslims and Jews from Andalusia. Couscous, which is well known in Mediterranean countries today, is a grain product prepared by mixing wheat semolina and water, usually by industrial or traditional methods (Boudouira et al., 2023). Traditional couscous in Turkey is generally produced using wheat flour, bulgur, milk, and salt.

Wheat flour is the starch-rich endosperm part of wheat that remains after the bran and germ parts rich in bioactive components, proteins, fats, minerals, and fibers are removed during the milling of wheat. Recent epidemiological studies have shown that consumption of products containing whole grains and bioactive components reduces the risk of chronic diseases due to oxidative stress and age-related disorders such as cardiovascular diseases, carcinogenesis, type II diabetes, and obesity. Therefore, consumers have started to search for products containing more nutritionally rich formulations. In this context, researchers have begun to look for ways to enrich existing formulations with different resources (Okarter et al., 2010). At the top of these resources are legumes, which are the most cultivated crops in the world after cereals.

Legumes are seeds with unique content used as human food in many parts of the world. Legumes are rich in protein, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins and are superior to cereal grains, especially in terms of protein amount (18%–24%) (Iqbal et al., 2006). Due to the nutritional and health-promoting properties of legumes, the development of legume-based products is encouraged in the functional food and nutraceutical industry (Bazzano et al., 2011). In recent years, mung bean has attracted attention for its physiological functionality, especially its anti-angiotensin I-converting enzyme content and antitumor, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and anti-melanocyte effects (Randhir and Shetty, 2007), while the flour, starch, protein isolate, and fiber of peas have attracted attention (Randhir and Shetty, 2007). They appear as high-value ingredients in the composition of many food products (Gomes et al., 2021). Ginger (Zingiber officinale) and turmeric (Curcuma longa) are traditional medicinal plants that have been used for more than 2000 years in the treatment of diabetes, high blood pressure, cancer, and many other diseases (Tepe et al., 2006). Ginger and turmeric have long been used in Eastern civilization as a spice, food flavoring, and colorant, and in medicinal preparations for various diseases such as cough, diabetic wounds, liver, and cardiovascular disorders (Kaynar et al., 2019).

This study aimed to evaluate the potential of mung bean and pea flour to replace wheat flour in new food formulations with current nutritional guidelines and dietary requirements and to use them together with antioxidant sources such as ginger and turmeric.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials

Wheat flour (Triticum aestivum), bulgur (Triticum durum), cow's milk, and table salt used in making couscous were purchased from the local market in Konya. Mung beans, peas, ginger, and turmeric used in the study were obtained from different markets operating in Konya. The seeds were ground in a coffee grinder (Sinbo, SCM2934, Istanbul, Turkey) and sieved through (<500 µm), then stored in airtight packages at −18 ˚C for use.

Methods

Preparation of couscous samples

Couscous production was carried out by modifying the traditional couscous production method given by Çelik et al. (2004). 8.4 g bulgur, 30.0 g wheat flour, and 12.9 g milk were used in the formulation of control couscous samples. In the couscous formulations using pea flour, pea flour was replaced with 20% wheat flour, and in the samples prepared with mung bean flour, mung bean flour was replaced with 20% wheat flour, and wet bulgur grains were coated with these flour mixtures. Two groups of couscous were obtained: coated with mung bean flour and coated with pea flour. In the samples with ginger and turmeric added, flour blends with 20% pea flour/mung bean flour were prepared by replacing them with 1, 2, and 3% ginger/turmeric powders. First, bulgur and milk were mixed in a large bowl and then flour was added. The resulting dough mass was rubbed between the palms of both hands and turned into round couscous grains with a diameter of 3–5 mm. Couscous grains, rolled to the desired diameter, were dried on a flat surface for 3–4 days at 25 ± 1 ˚C so that the moisture content dropped below 10%. Dried couscous was stored in polyethylene packages at room conditions until analyzed.

Color analysis

L*, a*, and b* color values of the samples were determined using a Minolta CR 400 color meter (Chroma Meter, Osaka, Japan). Color measurements were made from five different points of the samples placed in a petri dish with dimensions of 9 × 50 mm.

Baking properties and firmness

In order to determine the weight increase, volume increase, and cooking loss (CL) values of couscous samples, 20 g of couscous sample was cooked in 300 ml of pure water for 18 min. After the cooking process, the cooked samples were left to drain for 2 min and the weight increase was calculated by taking the weight difference of the couscous samples before cooking and after cooking and filtering. To determine the volume increase values of the samples, uncooked and cooked couscous samples were placed in a 250 ml measuring cylinder containing 150 ml of pure water and the amount of water they overflowed was determined. To determine the CL, the couscous cooking water was evaporated and the remaining solid was calculated by weighing (Demir et al., 2010).

Firmness determination of couscous samples was carried out with a texture analyzer (TA-XT plus, Stable Microsystems, England. After the couscous was cooked according to the optimum cooking time, they were placed side by side in a 5 cm diameter ring without overlapping and the firmness value was determined in g. The samples were compressed up to 70% of their height with a cylindrical probe of 36 mm diameter at a speed of 1 mm/s.

Chemical properties

AACC 44-19, AACC 08-01, AACC 46-30, and AACC 30-25 methods were used to determine the moisture, ash, protein, and fat amounts of the samples, respectively (AACC, 2000). The amount of phytic acid in couscous samples was determined using the colorimetric method according to Haug and Lantzsch (1983).

Extraction of phenolic components analysis

Total phenolic content (TPC) was extracted by partially modifying the method described by Vitali et al. (2009). For the TPC extraction, ground couscous samples (1 g) were mixed with 10 ml of 1% acidified (HCl) methanol:water solution (80:20, v/v). Extraction was carried out by shaking the mixture at room temperature (24 ± 1 °C) for 2 h. After extraction, the mixture was centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 min to obtain the supernatant for analysis, and the separated supernatant was stored at −18 °C for analysis. The TPC of the obtained supernatant was determined spectrophotometrically using the Folin-Ciocaltaeu method according to the method given by Singleton and Rossi (1965). Gallic acid was used as the standard and the results were expressed in g gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/kg couscous sample on a dry matter basis (y = 0.0037x + 0.0078, R² = 0.9968).

Antioxidant activity analysis

The extraction method described by Yılmaz and Koca (2017) was used to determine the antioxidant activities of the samples. Extraction was carried out by mixing 1 g of the sample with 80% methanol and following the procedure of TPC extraction. Antioxidant activity of couscous samples was determined by inhibition of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH) (Beta et al., 2005; Gyamfi et al., 1999), ferric reducing antioxidant power assay (FRAP) (Yılmaz, 2019) and ion reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC) (Apak et al., 2008).

Mineral analysis

To determine the Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, and Zn amounts of the samples, 0.3 g of dry sample was burned in a microwave system (Mars 5, CEM Corporation, USA) using 7 ml HNO₃ + H₂SO₄, and the mineral substance contents in the resulting filters were determined by ICP-MS (Inductive It was analyzed on a Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (Agilent Technologies—7900 ICP-MS/ASX 500, Waldbronn, Germany) (Skujins, 1998).

Statistical analysis

SPSS 22.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) statistical program was used for statistical analysis. Means were compared at the p < 0.05 significance level.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Color characteristics of couscous samples

L*, a*, and b* color values of cooked couscous samples prepared by using ginger and turmeric powders along with pea and mung bean flours are given in Table 1, respectively. L*, a*, and b* color values of wheat flour, durum bulgur, pea flour, mung bean flour, ginger powder, and turmeric powder used in couscous production are given in Table 1. As seen in Table 1, the color values of the couscous samples were compared separately for the pea and mung bean flour substituted samples in terms of the usage rates of ginger and turmeric used as bioactive ingredient sources. Table 1 shows the L*, a*, and b* color values of the samples containing 20% pea flour and 1, 2, and 3% ginger/turmeric. The results obtained showed that the addition of 20% pea flour decreased the brightness values (L*) in raw and cooked couscous samples and increased the b* color values compared to the control sample. This may be related to the lower L* value and higher b* value of pea flour compared to refined wheat flour. A study conducted by Choy et al. (2013) reported that the L* values of noodles containing pea flour were significantly lower than the control sample. While increasing ginger addition caused the L* value of raw couscous samples to decrease, no significant difference could be determined between the L* values of cooked couscous samples. However, the substitution of increasing amounts of turmeric caused a decrease in the L* value in both raw and cooked couscous samples, and this decrease was numerically higher than the decrease in the L* value of the samples with ginger addition. While the a* value of raw couscous samples with the substitution of pea flour and ginger/turmeric powder showed similar properties to the control couscous sample, the use of ginger at an increasing rate caused the a* value of the cooked couscous samples to decrease and the use of turmeric caused the a* value to increase. Among the cooked couscous samples with 20% pea flour substitution, the lowest a* value was found in the samples containing 3% ginger, while the highest a* value was determined in the couscous samples with 3% turmeric substitution. The addition of increasing amounts of ginger and turmeric in raw and cooked couscous samples increased the b* color value of the couscous samples compared to the control sample, and this increase was found to be statistically (p < 0.05) higher in couscous with turmeric than in couscous with ginger. Eymir and Bilgiçli (2022) reported that the use of ginger and turmeric decreased the L* value when comparing bulgur samples with the control bulgur sample, and this decrease occurred at a lower rate in samples containing ginger. Additionally, researchers reported that the use of turmeric increased the redness and yellowness values of both T. durum and T. aestivum bulgur.

Table 1.

Effect of pulse flour type and antioxidant sources type and level on the color values of couscous samples^a.

		Raw couscous			Cooked couscous
Wheat flour replacement	Antioxidant type/ratios	L*	a*	b*	L*	a*	b*
Trational cosucous	-	66.66 ± 0.23a	−1.26 ± 0.12ab	18.74 ± 0.11e	67.44 ± 0.42a	−4.55 ± 0.26b	12.68 ± 0.16g
20% Pea flour	-	60.21 ± 0.17b	−2.67 ± 0.09ab	21.72 ± 0.33d	61.21 ± 0.63b	−4.56 ± 0.23b	22.99 ± 0.11f
	GR^b (1%)	58.78 ± 0.58c	−2.79 ± 0.22ab	32.60 ± 0.27c	59.76 ± 0.59c	−4.96 ± 0.06bc	38.69 ± 0.06e
	GR (2%)	57.19 ± 0.87d	−2.85 ± 0.19ab	33.73 ± 0.30b	58.50 ± 0.32c	−6.49 ± 0.17de	39.16 ± 0.42de
	GR (3%)	56.72 ± 0.11de	−4.09 ± 0.19b	34.09 ± 0.12b	58.24 ± 0.98c	−8.73 ± 0.13f	42.90 ± 0.38bc
	TC^c (1%)	58.41 ± 0.26c	−2.85 ± 0.09ab	37.40 ± 0.29a	57.83 ± 0.25c	−6.98 ± 0.23e	41.72 ± 0.23cd
	TC (2%)	57.09 ± 0.21d	−1.03 ± 0.06ab	37.78 ± 0.22a	56.15 ± 0.72d	−5.87 ± 0.14cd	45.60 ± 0.11ab
	TC (3%)	55.94 ± 0.42e	−0.25 ± 0.06a	38.22 ± 0.17a	46.42 ± 0.26e	−2.33 ± 0.05a	47.08 ± 0.19a

		Raw Couscous			Cooked Couscous
Wheat flour replacement	Antioxidant type/ratios	L*	a*	b*	L*	a*	b*
Trational cosucous	-	66.48 ± 0.75a	−1.28 ± 0.11c	18.08 ± 0.23e	68.06 ± 0.29a	−4.37 ± 0.17bc	13.88 ± 0.42f
20% Mung bean flour	-	63.39 ± 0.63b	−1.11 ± 0.17bc	18.65 ± 0.18de	64.96 ± 0.52b	−3.77 ± 0.23abc	15.23 ± 0.26e
	GR (1%)	62.11 ± 0.22c	−2.58 ± 0.12d	19.26 ± 0.26d	62.88 ± 0.47b	−4.97 ± 0.32c	17.51 ± 0.33d
	GR (2%)	60.90 ± 0.19d	−2.53 ± 0.08d	20.33 ± 0.22bc	61.49 ± 0.72bc	−4.08 ± 0.11abc	17.56 ± 0.25d
	GR (3%)	55.29 ± 0.81f	−2.28 ± 0.20d	21.44 ± 0.09b	59.68 ± 0.18cd	−3.92 ± 0.09abc	19.88 ± 0.26c
	TC (1%)	57.25 ± 0.46e	−0.93 ± 0.03bc	20.62 ± 0.03bc	59.81 ± 0.36cd	−3.65 ± 0.36abc	20.41 ± 0.12bc
	TC (2%)	57.02 ± 0.23e	−0.67 ± 0.13ab	21.02 ± 0.19bc	57.85 ± 0.38d	−3.01 ± 0.21ab	21.14 ± 0.10b
	TC (3%)	49.32 ± 0.45g	−0.33 ± 0.06a	22.56 ± 0.10a	51.79 ± 0.41e	−2.88 ± 0.19a	22.67 ± 0.14a

Different letters indicate significant differences among samples in the same column (p < 0.05).

Ginger powder.

Turmeric powders.

The use of legume flour and spices affected the color characteristics of the couscous samples (Table 3). While 20% mung bean flour caused a significant decrease in the L* value of raw and cooked couscous samples, it numerically increased the a* and b* color values. Similar findings were reported by Liu et al. (2018), researchers reported that L* values for noodles containing different proportions of mung bean flour decreased significantly compared to control samples, while a* and b* values increased. The substitution of increasing amounts of ginger and turmeric resulted in a decrease in L* compared to both the control sample and the raw and cooked couscous samples made with 20% mung bean flour without ginger/turmeric. Among raw and cooked couscous samples, the highest L* value was determined in the control samples, while the lowest color L* values were determined in the samples with 3% turmeric added. The a* value of raw and cooked couscous samples with ginger addition was found to be lower than the a* value of samples with turmeric substitution. However, the use of turmeric caused the a* value of raw and cooked couscous samples to be higher than the control sample. Increasing amounts of ginger and turmeric usage in raw and cooked couscous samples with 20% mung bean substituted increased the b* color value of the couscous samples compared to the control sample, and this increase was found to be statistically (p < 0.05) higher in the couscous with turmeric than in the ones with ginger. This may be due to the high carotenoid content of turmeric (Çöteli and Karataş, 2017). Turmeric, like other vegetables such as carrots and spinach, can replace eggs and give a yellowish color to pasta and similar products (Vilar et al., 2021). Color is one of the quality characteristics that reflects the acceptability of the product by the consumer. Color properties vary depending on caramelization and Maillard reactions induced by cooking the product and the color properties of the raw materials used in the formulation (Sibian and Riar, 2020). However, considering that there was no heat treatment on the color properties of raw couscous samples, the color properties of the raw materials used may have been effective.

Cooking properties and firmness values of couscous samples

The cooking and texture properties of couscous samples prepared by using turmeric/ginger powders along with pea and mung bean flours are given in Table 2. The use of 20% pea flour decreased the weight increase value of the noodle samples while increasing the volume increase and cooking loss values. This increase was found to be statistically significant (p < 0.05) in the volume increase value. The weight increases of the samples produced by adding increasing amounts of ginger/turmeric powder to pea flour-added formulations varied between 150.5–148.1% and 143.5–124.5%, respectively (Table 2). While the use of ginger and turmeric among pea flour-added samples reduced the weight increase of the samples, this decrease was higher in the turmeric-substituted samples, and the lowest weight increase value was determined in the samples with 3% turmeric usage, at 124.5%. The use of pea flour increased the volume of the noodle samples by 1.4 times, and although the weight increase decreased with the increasing use of ginger and turmeric, all samples with pea flour substitution showed a higher volume increase value than the control sample (Table 2). Substitution of the increasing amount of ginger and turmeric powder in formulations using pea flour changed the CL of samples by 6.50–7.20% and 6.13–6.84% respectively. The use of ginger affected the CL of samples containing 20% pea flour at a higher rate than those containing turmeric, and the highest CL was determined in samples containing 3% ginger (7.77%).

Table 2.

Effect of pulse flour type and antioxidant sources type and level on the cooking and texture properties of couscous samples^a.

Wheat flour replacement	Antioxidant type/ratios	Weight increase (%)	Volume increase (%)	Cooking loss (%)	Firmness (g)
Trational cosucous	-	194.0 ± 1.59a	175.0 ± 3.88d	6.07 ± 0.18e	313.4 ± 3.77c
20% Pea flour	-	151.0 ± 1.77b	241.3 ± 4.31a	6.33 ± 0.80cde	342.5 ± 4.98b
	GR^b (1%)	150.5 ± 2.02b	237.4 ± 7.13a	6.50 ± 0.76bcd	340.9 ± 13.58b
	GR (2%)	148.5 ± 4.49bc	191.8 ± 3.30c	6.75 ± 0.36b	265.7 ± 11.84d
	GR (3%)	148.1 ± 1.35bc	187.5 ± 2.78c	7.20 ± 0.42a	152.1 ± 9.48f
	TC^c (1%)	143.5 ± 1.56cd	225.0 ± 2.92b	6.13 ± 0.81de	472.4 ± 32.54a
	TC (2%)	141.5 ± 5.71d	225.4 ± 4.23b	6.67 ± 0.26bc	353.2 ± 21.33b
	TC (3%)	124.5 ± 1.34e	196.0 ± 5.88c	6.84 ± 0.39ab	204.7 ± 18.20e

Wheat flour replacement	Antioxidant type/ratios	Weight increase (%)	Volume increase (%)	Cooking loss (%)	Firmness (g)
Trational cosucous	-	194.0 ± 1.74a	175.0 ± 2.58e	5.99 ± 0.46c	305.2 ± 3.76a
20% Mung bean flour	-	188.8 ± 1.27ab	227.7 ± 6.54a	5.66 ± 0.56cd	284.6 ± 21.71bc
	GR (1%)	186.8 ± 2.34b	182.8 ± 6.79d	5.55 ± 0.81d	273.7 ± 0.92c
	GR (2%)	155.0 ± 0.96d	162.5 ± 5.41f	6.63 ± 0.22b	229.0 ± 5.56d
	GR (3%)	146.0 ± 2.58e	165.2 ± 3.26f	7.77 ± 0.36a	112.1 ± 2.18f
	TC (1%)	188.5 ± 5.84ab	228.8 ± 3.78a	5.13 ± 0.21e	297.5 ± 24.18ab
	TC (2%)	164.0 ± 7.42c	214.3 ± 3.94b	5.38 ± 0.17e	221.0 ± 13.52d
	TC (3%)	139.0 ± 2.12f	197.4 ± 2.97c	5.60 ± 0.46d	183.2 ± 2.98e

Different letters indicate significant differences among samples in the same column (p < 0.05).

Ginger powder.

Turmeric powders.

The use of 20% mung bean numerically decreased the weight increase and CL values of the samples compared to the control sample, while statistically increasing the volume increase value (Table 2). Weight increase may have decreased due to increased protein content after using 20% pea/mung bean flour. This may be related to the fact that the substitution of pea flour/mung bean flour increases the protein content in the formulation and decreases the starch proportion, weakening the combination of starch with water and reducing the water absorption of the dough (Liu et al., 2018). Lu and Lin (2011) reported that the water absorption of noodle samples showed a significant negative correlation with the increased protein content after adding mung bean flour. Also, Xu et al. (2023) reported that there was a negative correlation between water retention capacity and solubility, indicating that the high water absorption capacity was mainly attributed to the insoluble protein fraction. The fact that the main proteins found in pulse are globulins and albumins, which are soluble proteins, may be among the reasons for the low water absorption. In addition, the same study reported that the average overall water absorption capacity of cereal proteins is higher than that of legume proteins. The interaction between water and protein is usually influenced by protein structure (pore size in particular), amino acid composition, and ionic strength (Shanthakumar et al., 2022).

The weight increase values of the samples with mung bean flour substituted with increasing amounts of ginger/turmeric were between 186.8–146.0% and 188.5–139.0%, respectively, and the lowest weight increase value was determined in the samples with 3% turmeric substitution. Although a higher volume increase value was determined with the use of mung bean flour than the control sample, the increasing use of ginger and turmeric decreased the volume increase rate and the use of 2% and above ginger resulted in lower volume increase values than the control sample. With the substitution of ginger/turmeric, the CL values of the samples with mung bean flour changed between 5.55–7.77% and 5.13–5.60%, respectively. The use of 1% ginger and 1, 2, and 3% turmeric caused the CL value of the mung bean flour substituted noodle samples to be significantly lower than the control sample. The CL is widely used as an indicator of overall cooking performance, considering it as an index of resistance to disintegration during the cooking of pasta and pasta-like products. Low CL indicates high-quality cooked pasta products (Del Nobile et al., 2005). The use of pea and mung bean flour may have caused the gluten network to fail to develop and, as a result, the inability of starch polymers to adhere sufficiently to the weak gluten matrix and high losses during baking (Marti and Pagani, 2013). However, due to the interaction of the phenolic components in ginger and turmeric, which are antioxidant sources, with proteins, the changed protein structure may have reduced CL during the cooking of couscous.

Textural properties are one of the most important factors that contribute to the quality of pasta and similar products. Firmness values of couscous samples obtained by combining different protein sources (peas and mung beans) and antioxidant sources (ginger and turmeric) are given in Table 2. While the firmness values of the control samples were determined as 313.4 and 305.2 g, respectively, the firmness value of the noodle samples with 20% pea flour substitution (342.5 g) was found to be higher than the control sample, and the firmness value of the noodle samples with 20% mung bean flour substitution (284.6 g) was found to be lower than the control sample. It was determined that the firmness value varied between 152.1 and 472.4 g in the samples with pea flour substitution and between 112.1 and 297.5 g in the samples with mung bean flour substitution (Table 2). Among the couscous samples prepared with pea flour, the highest firmness value was determined in the couscous samples containing 1% turmeric (472.4 g), and the lowest was determined in the couscous samples prepared with 3% ginger (152.1 g). Similar to the samples with pea flour substitution, the highest firmness value was measured with the use of 1% turmeric (297.5 g) and the lowest firmness value was measured in the samples with 3% ginger substitution (112.1 g). Increasing amounts of ginger/turmeric usage caused a general decrease in firmness values in mung bean/pea flour substituted samples. Dündar et al. (2020) reported that the application of 1% ascorbic acid ensured that the fruit with the highest hardness value was obtained after 8 days of storage, in general, hardness in products such as pasta is associated with the cooking level and protein ratio (Oduro-Obeng et al., 2021). However, the effects of the interactions of antioxidant and phenolic components with protein and carbohydrate structures on the change of textural properties cannot be ignored. Han and Koh (2011) reported that phenolic compounds reduce high molecular weight proteins in flour and affect the quality of grain-based products. Also, Girard and Awika (2020) reported that antioxidants have been reported to increase protein network density and strength by cross-linking gluten proteins.

Chemical properties of couscous samples

The chemical composition of the couscous samples produced within the scope of the study is given in Table 3, and the chemical properties of the raw materials used in the preparation of the couscous samples are given in Supplementary Material Table 1. The moisture content of pea flour containing ginger/turmeric and couscous samples containing mung bean flour varied between 7.99–8.94% and 8.39–8.89%, respectively. Moisture content exceeding 14% facilitates the growth of microorganisms, causing the nutritional quality of foods to decrease and deteriorate (Nanyen et al., 2016), so the lower the moisture content of a sample, the easier it is to store. Since the moisture content of the samples produced within the scope of the study is below 14%, they can maintain their quality properties for a longer time during storage. The use of pea flour and/or mung bean flour in the couscous formulation increased the ash content of the couscous samples. Compared to the control sample, it was determined that the ash amount of the samples increased approximately 1.5 times with the substitution of pea flour and mung bean flour. Among all the samples produced, the statistically lowest ash content was determined in the control couscous samples, and the numerically highest ash content was measured in the couscous samples with 3% turmeric substituted (1.75% and 1.68%). The fact that the ash content of wheat flour is lower than pea and mung bean flour and that ginger and turmeric have a higher ash content than wheat flour was effective in obtaining these results. The protein amount, which was 12.54% in the control couscous sample, increased 1.3 times to 16.12% with the use of 20% pea flour, while the protein amount in the mung bean samples, which was 12.46% in the control, increased 1.2 times to 14.99%. The higher protein content of pea (29.30%) and mung bean flour (23.11%) than wheat flour (11.12%) may have been effective in this increase (Table 1). However, with the use of ginger/turmeric in couscous formulations, the protein content of couscous samples decreased numerically. The fact that ginger/turmeric powders have low protein content (7.74% and 7.22%) may be related to the protein results obtained. While the use of ginger/turmeric in substitution to pea flour and mung bean flour increased the fat content of the samples numerically, couscous samples containing 3% ginger/turmeric were the samples with statistically higher fat content than the control sample in the formulations of both legume varieties. The high phytic acid content of pea and mung bean flours was reflected in the phytic acid content of the couscous samples. The phytic acid content of the samples containing 20% pea flour was found to be 1.3 times higher than the control sample, and the same value of the samples with mung bean addition was 1.4 times higher than the control sample. Phytic acid is an anti-nutritional element that forms a complex with minerals such as zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium, and copper, reducing their bioavailability (Harland and Harland, 1980). Phytic acid, found as a natural component in cereals and legumes, is a factor that negatively affects nutritional quality. However, recent research emphasizes the antioxidant properties of phytic acid (Cankurtaran and Bilgiçli, 2021).

Table 3.

Effect of pulse flour type and antioxidant sources type and level on the chemical properties of couscous samples^a.

Wheat flour replacement	Antioxidant type/ratios	Moisture (%)	Ash (%)	Protein (%)	Fat (%)	Phytic acid (mg/100 g)
Trational cosucous	-	8.83 ± 0.10a	1.08 ± 0.05b	12.54 ± 0.16c	1.31 ± 0.17b	384.79 ± 11.25e
20% Pea flour	-	8.94 ± 0.03a	1.66 ± 0.00a	16.12 ± 0.23a	1.35 ± 0.16ab	492.74 ± 6.54a
	GR^b (1%)	8.76 ± 0.07ab	1.67 ± 0.04a	16.01 ± 0.02ab	1.37 ± 0.21ab	472.12 ± 41.21b
	GR (2%)	8.81 ± 0.12a	1.66 ± 0.01a	15.87 ± 0.06ab	1.42 ± 0.20ab	459.66 ± 38.20c
	GR (3%)	8.49 ± 0.10bc	1.69 ± 0.02a	15.75 ± 0.11b	1.48 ± .06a	427.41 ± 43.98d
	TC^c (1%)	8.39 ± 0.08c	1.70 ± 0.05a	16.10 ± 0.05a	1.39a ± 0.01b	468.21 ± 26.74b
	TC (2%)	8.51b ± 0.14c	1.72 ± 0.02a	15.90 ± 0.13ab	1.42 ± 0.12ab	453.28 ± 34.28c
	TC (3%)	7.99 ± 0.10d	1.75 ± 0.03a	15.79 ± 0.22b	1.51 ± 0.22a	435.26 ± 19.51d

Wheat flour replacement	Antioxidant type/ratios	Moisture (%)	Ash (%)	Protein (%)	Fat (%)	Phytic acid (mg/100 g)
Trational cosucous	-	8.77 ± 0.25ab	1.03 ± 0.02c	12.46 ± 0.06c	1.31 ± 0.013b	384.09 ± 23.62f
20% Mung bean flour	-	8.56 ± 0.12bc	1.53 ± 0.04b	14.99 ± 0.12a	1.32 ± .12b	517.12 ± 49.51a
	GR (1%)	8.89 ± 0.05a	1.59 ± 0.00ab	14.93 ± 0.27ab	1.33 ± 0.19b	508.20 ± 36.50b
	GR (2%)	8.44 ± 0.08c	1.61 ± 0.05ab	14.57 ± 0.06ab	1.41 ± 0.08ab	485.77 ± 4.56d
	GR (3%)	8.66 ± 0.26abc	1.64 ± 0.02ab	13.77 ± 0.31b	1.60 ± 0.22a	485.66 ± 77.62d
	TC (1%)	8.54 ± 0.09bc	1.59 ± 0.03ab	15.15 ± 0.18a	1.24 ± 0.09b	493.87 ± 12.84c
	TC (2%)	8.44 ± 0.11c	1.67 ± 0.01a	14.79 ± .09ab	1.46 ± 0.06ab	489.21 ± 63.41cd
	TC (3%)	8.39 ± 0.11c	1.68 ± 0.01a	14.87 ± 0.12ab	1.64 ± 0.01a	447.21 ± 19.51e

Different letters indicate significant differences among samples in the same column (p < 0.05).

Ginger powder.

Turmeric powders.

In ginger and turmeric, active ingredients such as phenolic and terpene compounds are abundant, and the phenolic compounds in ginger are mainly gingerol, shogaols, and paradols (Prasad and Tyagi, 2015). The antioxidant activity of turmeric originates from curcuminoids (Amalraj et al., 2017). Antioxidant activity values of couscous samples were determined according to DPPH, FRAP, and CUPRAC methods and the results are given in Table 4. The use of 20% pea flour and mung bean flour increased the antioxidant activity values of couscous samples. In both formulations, the lowest DPPH, FRAP, and CUPRAC antioxidant activity values among all samples were determined in the control samples, and this value was followed by the samples with 20% pea flour and mung bean flour substituted. With the increasing use of ginger and turmeric, the antioxidant activity value of both pea and mung bean flour substituted couscous samples increased. This increase was generally higher in samples with turmeric-substituted samples. This may be related to the higher antioxidant activity of turmeric than ginger. Vilar et al. (2021) found the DPPH value of fresh pasta samples with 3% turmeric added to be 12 times higher and the ABTS value to be 6 times higher than the control sample. Gingerol and shoagol content of ginger (Aktürk, 2013), glutathione, carotenoids, and vitamin C in turmeric (Çöteli and Karataş, 2017) may be responsible for the increase in antioxidant activities of couscous samples with the increasing use of ginger and turmeric.

Table 4.

Effect of pulse flour type and antioxidant sources type and level on the antioxidant activity values and TPC amount of couscous samples^a.

Wheat flour replacement	Antioxidant type/ratios	DPPH^b (mg TE/kg)	FRAP^c (μmol TE/g)	CUPRAC^d (μmol TE/g)	TPC^e (mg GAE/kg)
Trational cosucous	-	101.19 ± 0.32f	0.43 ± 0.12f	2.11 ± 0.23g	3035.75 ± 23.54h
20% Pea flour	-	154.23 ± 0.45e	0.83 ± 0.15e	5.13 ± 0.52f	3821.89 ± 48.52g
	GR^f (1%)	163.48 ± 0.84d	1.08 ± 0.06de	8.72 ± 0.13e	4590.79 ± 66.74f
	GR (2%)	184.38 ± 1.02c	1.69 ± 0.35c	11.73 ± 0.42d	5046.41 ± 29.11d
	GR (3%)	200.87 ± 1.15b	2.36 ± 0.05b	13.70 ± 0.41c	5937.73 ± 6974b
	TC^g (1%)	153.43 ± 0.62e	1.14 ± 0.17d	14.25 ± 0.11c	4846.20 ± 82.54e
	TC (2%)	188.27 ± 0.23c	2.29 ± 0.56b	16.59 ± 0.98b	5295.44 ± 19.74c
	TC (3%)	209.24 ± 0.98a	3.06 ± 0.48a	20.37 ± 0.25a	6097.31 ± 76.53a

Wheat flour replacement	Antioxidant type/ratios	DPPH (mg TE/kg)	FRAP (μmol TE/g)	CUPRAC (μmol TE/g)	TPC (mg GAE/kg)
Trational cosucous	-	101.19 ± 2.11f	0.43 ± 0.02g	2.15 ± 0.68e	3045.20 ± 21.51f
20% Mung bean flour	-	157.48 ± 0.02e	0.88 ± 0.36f	4.87 ± 1.52d	3652.12 ± 48.36e
	GR (1%)	168.52 ± 0.56cd	1.38 ± 0.28d	5.27 ± 0.36d	4320.45 ± 79.41d
	GR (2%)	175.13 ± 0.43c	1.62 ± 0.49c	7.33 ± 0.42c	4998.62 ± 19.52b
	GR (3%)	193.47 ± 0.74a	1.94 ± 0.11b	8.46 ± 0.17c	5878.77 ± 65.47a
	TC (1%)	161.97 ± 0.19de	1.09 ± 0.06e	7.35 ± 0.28c	4808.11 ± 23.63c
	TC (2%)	175.21 ± 1.02c	1.65 ± 0.38c	12.64 ± 0.66b	5099.67 ± 69.69b
	TC (3%)	184.38 ± 1.06b	2.13 ± 0.72a	15.33 ± 0.79a	6028.46 ± 56.94a

Different letters indicate significant differences among samples in the same column (p < 0.05).

2,2-diphenyl-1picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging (TE: Trolox equivalent).

Ferric reducing antioxidant power.

Cupric ion reducing antioxidant capacity.

TPC, total phenolic content.

GR, ginger powder.

TC, turmeric powders.

Depending on the increase in the concentrations of antioxidant sources in the couscous formulations, the TPC amount of pea flour/mung bean flour substituted couscous samples varied between 3821.89–6097.31 and 3652.12–6028.46 mg GAE/kg, respectively (Table 4). With the use of 20% pea flour, the TPC amount determined as 3035.75 mg GAE/kg in the control couscous sample increased to 3821.89 mg GAE/kg, and with the substitution of 20% mung bean flour, the TPC amount determined as 3045.20 mg GAE/kg in the control sample increased to 3652.12 mg GAE/kg. The low TPC content of the control sample prepared from 100% refined wheat flour may be due to the removal of polyphenols concentrated mainly in the outer layers of the wheat grain (bran and germ) with these layers during the milling process (Luthria et al., 2015). The TPC amount of couscous samples increased with the increasing use of ginger and turmeric. In the formulations where both legume flours were used, couscous samples containing 3% ginger and 3% turmeric were determined to have higher TPC amounts than other couscous samples. It has been observed that replacing wheat flour with low phenolic content with pea and mung bean flours with high phenolic content in the formulation, as well as ginger and turmeric rich in bioactive components, contributed to the increase in the phenolic content of couscous samples.

Mineral properties of couscous samples

The results of mineral substance amounts of couscous samples with pea flour and mung bean flour are shown in Table 5. The use of pea flour increased the Ca, Mg, K, and Zn values of the couscous samples, and the lowest values were determined in the control couscous samples. Although the amounts of Fe and Mn increased numerically with the use of ginger and turmeric in addition to pea flour, no statistical difference was found between the samples. Compared to the control sample, the highest Ca and Mg values were determined in pea flour substituted samples containing 3% turmeric. When the results were evaluated in terms of mung bean flour-substituted samples, the lowest Ca, Fe, Mg, K, Mn, and Zn values were determined in the control couscous sample. However, the Ca, Fe, and Mg contents of couscous samples containing 20% mung bean flour and 3% turmeric were found to be 1.4, 1.1, and 1.5 times higher than the control couscous sample, respectively. K, Mn, and Zn values of all couscous samples containing mung bean were found to be statistically similar. The fact that pea and mung bean flours, as well as ginger and turmeric, have higher mineral content than wheat flour affected these results.

Table 5.

Effect of pulse flour type and antioxidant sources type and level on the mineral content of couscous samples (mg/100 g)^a.

Wheat flour replacement	Antioxidant type/ratios	Ca	Fe	Mg	K	Mn	Zn
Trational cosucous	-	53.78 ± 0.56c	1.77 ± 0.04a	24.12 ± 0.70b	254.84 ± 2.36e	0.75 ± 0.02a	1.18 ± 0.12b
20% Pea flour	-	76.21 ± 1.23b	2.02 ± 0.09a	40.21 ± 0.64a	411.25 ± 4.25d	0.78 ± 0.11a	1.72 ± 0.24a
	GR^b (1%)	76.55 ± 1.41b	2.03 ± 0.01a	40.33 ± 1.02a	419.25 ± 3.96c	0.78 ± 0.06a	1.75 ± .13a
	GR (2%)	77.13a ± 0.90b	2.13 ± 0.12a	41.12 ± 0.51a	423.68 ± 6.24bc	0.78 ± 0.03a	1.75 ± 0.10a
	GR (3%)	77.75 ± 0.81ab	2.11 ± 0.03a	41.89 ± 1.16a	429.22 ± 5.01ab	0.80 ± 0.19a	1.78 ± 0.06a
	TC^c (1%)	77.02 ± 0.65ab	2.04 ± 0.09a	40.51 ± 0.81a	419.66 ± 4.32c	0.77 ± 0.12a	1.72 ± 0.01a
	TC (2%)	77.88 ± 0.44ab	2.06 ± 0.08a	41.33 ± 0.66a	426.33 ± 3.58ab	0.77 ± 0.00a	1.75 ± 0.11a
	TC (3%)	78.51 ± 0.59a	2.06 ± 0.10a	41.91 ± 1.28a	431.69 ± 5.49a	0.77 ± 0.09a	1.79 ± 0.09a

Wheat flour replacement	Antioxidant type/ratios	Ca	Fe	Mg	K	Mn	Zn
Trational cosucous	-	54.21 ± 0.026d	1.82 ± 0.09c	24.00 ± 0.80c	253.54 ± 4.23b	0.72 ± 0.12b	1.11 ± 0.23b
20% Mung bean flour	-	72.01 ± 0.074c	1.86 ± 0.16bc	33.47 ± 0.52b	476.28 ± 3.89a	0.81 ± 0.09a	1.66 ± 0.12a
	GR (1%)	73.65 ± 0.71ab	1.86 ± 0.38bc	33.56 ± 0.49b	477.22 ± 6.41a	0.82 ± 0.01a	1.68 ± 0.19a
	GR (2%)	74.02 ± 0.81ab	1.88 ± 0.26bc	33.95 ± 0.66ab	477.25 ± 2.85a	0.81 ± 0.13a	1.73 ± 0.09a
	GR (3%)	74.26 ± 0.46ab	1.93 ± 0.13ab	34.12 ± 0.34ab	477.25 ± 3.74a	0.83 ± 0.09a	1.74 ± 0.32a
	TC (1%)	73.02 ± 0.32bc	1.87 ± 0.36bc	33.65 ± 0.17b	476.98 ± 5.48a	0.82 ± 0.01a	1.65 ± 0.25a
	TC (2%)	73.12 ± 0.68bc	1.92 ± 0.19ab	34.25 ± 0.35ab	477.02 ± 4.29a	0.83 ± 0.28a	1.67 ± 0.07a
	TC (3%)	74.51 ± 1.16a	1.99 ± 0.10a	34.87 ± 0.42a	477.51 ± 6.48a	0.83 ± 0.03a	1.69 ± 0.01a

Different letters indicate significant differences among samples in the same column (p < 0.05).

Ginger powder.

Turmeric powders.

CONCLUSION

In this study, the effects of using two different protein sources (pea and mung bean) and two different antioxidant sources (turmeric and ginger) in different ratios (1, 2, and 3%) in the couscous formulation on various physical, and chemical and functional properties of couscous were investigated. The use of protein sources in the couscous formulation decreased the L* value of the samples, and the yellowness and redness values increased with the use of turmeric. The volume increase values increased with the substitution of protein sources, decreased with the use of antioxidant sources at an increasing rate, and lower volume increase values were measured in samples with 2 and 3% ginger substitution in addition to mung bean flour than the control sample. In addition, the samples with mung bean substitution showed less stringent properties than the traditional couscous samples. The ash, protein, phytic acid, antioxidant activity, and TPC values of pea and mung bean flour samples increased. Antioxidant activity values and TPC amounts increased more with the use of turmeric and ginger at an increasing rate. Although the phytic acid content increased with the use of legume flours and decreased with the inclusion of antioxidant sources in the formulation, it was determined that they had statistically higher phytic acid amounts than the traditional couscous samples. The rich mineral content of pea and mung bean flours was reflected in couscous samples and the Ca, K, Mg, and Zn contents of the samples increased with the use of flours obtained from these legumes. The results obtained showed that the combined use of legumes as a protein source and spices as an antioxidant source can be used to increase the functionality and diversity of food formulations both technologically and nutritionally.

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-fst-10.1177_10820132241307416 - Supplemental material for Use of different protein and antioxidant sources in couscous production to improve chemical and functional properties

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-fst-10.1177_10820132241307416 for Use of different protein and antioxidant sources in couscous production to improve chemical and functional properties by Tekmile Cankurtaran Kömürcü in Food Science and Technology International

Footnotes

DECLARATION OF CONFLICTING INTERESTS

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

FUNDING

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Tekmile Cankurtaran Kömürcü

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

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