Ineffective decision-making skills and problem-solving strategies are frequently identified as barriers to positive adult outcomes for people with mental retardation. This includes social or interpersonal cognitive problem-solving skills, although little research exists to evaluate cognitive problem-solving in this group. In non-social problem-solving, people with mental retardation typically exhibit inflexible patterns of problem-solving, relying overly on limited strategies. The present study provides an initial description of interpersonal cognitive problem-solving in this area and examines the use of one assessment procedure, the Means-Ends Problem-Solving procedure. Using this assessment, adults with mental retardation were found to employ limited means to solving social problems and to generate proportionally fewer relevant means than expected. The relationship between component elements of self-determination and social problem-solving are discussed, as is the importance of this area in promoting self-determination.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AgranM.Fodor-DavisJ., & MooreS. (1986). The effects of self-instructional training on job-task sequencing: Suggesting a problem-solving strategy. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 21, 273–281.
2.
AgranM.SalzbergC. L., & StowitschekJ. J. (1987). An analysis of the effects of a social skills training program using self-instructions on the acquisition and generalization of two social behaviors in a work setting. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 12, 131–139.
3.
BensonG.AbbedutoL.ShortK.NuccioJ. B., & MaasF. (1993). Development of a theory of mind in individuals with mental retardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 98, 427–433.
4.
Beyth-MaromR.FischhoffB.Jacobs QuadrelM., & FurbyL. (1991). Teaching decision making to adolescents: A critical review. In BaronJ. & BrownR. V. (Eds.), Teaching decision making to adolescents (pp. 19–60). Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum.
5.
BuserK. P. & ReimerD. (1988). Developing cognitive strategies through problem solving. Teaching Exceptional Children, 20, 22–25.
6.
CastlesE. E. & GlassC. R. (1986). Training in social and interpersonal problem-solving skills for mildly and moderately mentally retarded adults. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 91, 35–42.
7.
Chadsey-RuschJ. (1986). Identifying and teaching valued social behaviors. In RuschF. R. (Ed.), Competitive employment: Service delivery models, methods and issues (pp. 273–287). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
8.
CruickshankW. (1948). Arithmetic ability of mentally retarded children: Ability to differentiate extraneous material from needed arithmetic facts. Journal of Educational Research, 42, 161–170.
9.
ElliotT. R.GodshallF.ShroutJ. R., & WittyT. E. (1990). Problem-solving appraisal, self-reported study habits and performance of academically at-risk college students. The Journal of Counseling Psychology, 37, 203–207.
10.
EllisN. R.Woodley-ZanthosP.DulaneyC. L., & PalmerR. L. (1989). Automatic-effortful processing and cognitive inertia in persons with mental retardation. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 93, 412–423.
11.
FerrettiR. P. & ButterfieldE. C. (1989). Intelligence as a correlate of children's problem solving. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 93, 424–433.
12.
FerrettiR. P. & CavalierA. R. (1991). Constraints on the problem solving of persons with mental retardation. In BrayN. W. (Ed.), International Review of Research in Mental Retardation (Volume 17, pp. 153–192). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
13.
FinchamF. & BarlingJ. (1978). Locus of control and generosity in learning disabled, normal achieving and gifted children. Child Development, 49, 530–533.
14.
FinleyC. J. (1962). Arithmetic achievement in mentally retarded children: The effects of presentation of problems in different contexts. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 67, 281–286.
15.
FoxxR. M. & BittleR. G. (1989). Thinking it through: Teaching a problem-solving strategy for community living. Champaign, IL: Research Press.
16.
GruenG. E. & KorteJ. (1973). Information processing in familially retarded and nonretarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 78, 82–88.
17.
HallahanD. P.GajarA. H.CohenS. B., & TarverS. G. (1978). Selective attention and locus of control in learning disabled and normal children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 11, 47–52.
18.
HealeyK., & MasterpasquaF. (1992). Interpersonal cognitive problem-solving among children with mild mental retardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 96, 367–372.
19.
HeppnerP. P.HibelJ.NealG. W.WeinsteinC. I., & RabinowitzF. E. (1982). Personal problem solving: a descriptive study of individual differences. The Journal of Counseling Psychology, 29, 66–75.
20.
HeppnerP. P. & PetersenC. H. (1982). The development and implications of a personal problem-solving inventory. The Journal of Counseling Psychology, 29, 66–75.
21.
HughesC. (1992). Teaching self-instruction utilizing multiple exemplars to produce generalized problem-solving among individuals with severe mental retardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 97, 302–314.
22.
IzzoM. V.PritzS. G., & OttP. (1990). Teaching problem-solving skills: A ticket to a brighter future. The Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education, 13, 23–26.
23.
JahodaM. (1953). The meaning of psychological health. Social Casework, 34, 349–354.
24.
LarsonK. A., & GerberM. M. (1987). Effects of social metacognitive training for enhancing overt behavior in learning disabled and low achieving delinquents. Exceptional Children, 54, 201–211.
25.
LefcourtH. M. (1976). Locus of control: Current trends in theory and research. Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum.
26.
MarshH. W. (1990). Self-description questionnaire-III manual. A theoretical and empirical basis for the measurement of multiple dimensions of late adolescent self-concept. Sydney, Australia: The University of Western Sydney.
27.
MartinJ. E.MarshallL. H., & MaxsonL. L. (1993). Transition policy: infusing self-determination and self-advocacy into transition programs. Career Development of Exceptional Individuals, 16, 53–63.
28.
MithaugD. E. (1991). Self-determined kids. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
29.
MithaugD. E.MartinJ. E., & AgranM. (1987). Adaptability instruction: The goal of transitional programming. Exceptional Children, 53, 500–505.
30.
NorusisM. J. (1992). SPSS for Windows base system user's guide, release 5.0. Chicago: SPSS, Inc.
31.
NowickiS. & DukeM. P. (1974). A locus of control scale for non-college as well as college adults. Journal of Personality Assessment, 38, 136–137.
32.
OllendickT. H.OswaldD., & CroweH. P. (1986). The development and validation of the self-efficacy scale for social skills in children. Unpublished manuscript.
33.
OllendickT. H.OswaldD. P., & FrancisG. (1989). Validity of teacher nominations in identifying aggressive, withdrawn and popular children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 18, 221–229.
34.
OllendickT. H. & SchmidtC. R. (1987). Social learning constructs in the prediction of peer interaction. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 16, 80–87.
35.
ParkH. S. & Gaylord-RossR. (1989). A problem-solving approach to social skills training in employment settings with mentally retarded youth. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 22, 373–380.
36.
PlattJ., & HermalinJ. (1989). Social skill deficit interventions for substance abusers. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 3, 114–133.
37.
PlattJ. & SpivackG. (1989). The MEPS procedure manual. Philadelphia: Department of Mental Health Sciences, Hahnemann University.
38.
PlattJ.SpivackG.AltmanN., & AltmanD. (1974). Adolescent problem-solving thinking. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 787–793.
39.
RogersH. & SaklofskeD. H. (1985). Self-concepts, locus of control and performance expectations of learning disabled children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 18, 273–278.
40.
SchenckW. E. (1973). Pictures and the indefinite quantifier in verbal problem solving among EMR children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 78, 272–276.
41.
ShavelsonR. J. & MarshH. W. (1976). On the structure of self-concept. In SchwarzerR. (Ed.), Anxiety and cognitions (pp. 305–330). Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum.
42.
ShortE. J. & EvansS. W. (1990). Individual differences in cognitive and social problem-solving skills as a function of intelligence. In BrayN. W. (Ed.), International Review of Research in Mental Retardation (Volume 16, pp. 89–123). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
43.
SpivackG., & LevineM. (1963). Self-regulation in acting-out and normal adolescents. Report to National Institute of Health.
44.
SpivackG. & ShureM. (1974). Social Adjustment of Young Children. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
45.
St. PeterS.FieldS., & HoffmanA. (1992). Self-determination: A literature review and synthesis. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University, Developmental Disabilities Institute.
46.
SwansonL. (1980). Cognitive style, locus of control, and school achievement in learning disabled females. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36, 965–967.
47.
SwansonL. (1981). Locus of control and academic achievement in learning disabled children. The Journal of Social Psychology, 113, 141–142.
48.
TymchukA. J.AndronL., & RahbarB. (1988). Effective decision-making/problem-solving training with mothers who have mental retardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 92, 510–516.
49.
WehmeyerM. L. (1992a). Self-determination and the education of students with mental retardation. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 27, 302–314.
50.
WehmeyerM. (1992b). Self-determination: Critical skills for outcome-oriented transition services. Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education, 15, 3–7.
51.
WehmeyerM. L. (1993a). Factor structure and construct validity of a locus of control scale with individuals with mental retardation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53, 1055–1066.
52.
WehmeyerM. L. (1993b). Gender differences in locus of control scores for students with learning disabilities. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 77, 359–366.
53.
WehmeyerM. L. (1994a). Perceptions of self-determination and psychological empowerment of adolescents with mental retardation. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 29, 9–21.
54.
WehmeyerM. L. (1994b). Reliability and acquiescence in the measurement of locus of control with adolescents and adults with mental retardation. Psychological Reports, 75, 527–537.
55.
WheelerD. (1991). Metaphors for effective thinking. In BaronJ. & BrownR. (Eds.), Teaching Decision Making to Adolescents (pp. 309–327). Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum.
56.
WidamanK. F.MacMillanD. L.HemsleyR. E.LittleT. D., & BalowI. H. (1992). Differences in adolescents' self-concept as a function of academic level, ethnicity, and gender. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 96, 387–404.
57.
ZimmermanB. J. & Martinez-PonsM. (1992). Perceptions of efficacy and strategy use in the self-regulation of learning. In SchunkD. H. & MeeceJ. L. (Eds.), Student Perceptions in the Classroom (pp. 185–207). Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum.
