The main objective of this paper is to analyse where women run for and win seats in local councils of Czech towns between 1998 and 2018. Our results are to some extent contradictory to those from Western Europe. More importantly, this study demonstrates that strategic context impacts on women’s emergence and success in local elections in a different way. First, we do not confirm that larger towns are more promising for women’s representation. While more fragmented party systems in larger cities contribute to making women’s candidacy more common, a large pool of female candidates does not result in their higher presence in local councils. Second, we identify openness of local environment to women, in terms of women’s previous representation, as a strong determinant of female representation in Czech towns, both in terms of candidacy and success.
AbendschönSimoneSteinmetzStephanie. 2014. “The Gender Gap in Voting Revisited: Women’s Party Preferences in a European Context.” Social Politics21 (2): 315–44. doi:10.1093/sp/jxu009.
2.
AlozieNicholasManganaroLynne. 1993. “Women’s Council Representation: Measurement Implications for Public Policy.” Political Research Quarterly46 (2): 383–98. doi:10.1177/106591299304600210.
3.
AnckarCarsten. 2000. “Size and Party System Fragmentation.” Party Politics6 (3): 305–28. doi:10.1177/1354068800006003003.
4.
BalíkStanislav. 2008. Česká komunální politika v obcích s rozšířenou působností. Koalice, voličské vzorce a politické strany na místní úrovni v letech 1994–2006. Brno: CDK.
5.
BalíkStanislavGongalaPetrGregorKamil. 2015. Dvacet let komunálních voleb v ČR. Brno: CDK.
6.
BauerNichole M.2015. “Emotional, Sensitive, and Unfit for Office? Gender Stereotype Activation and Support Female Candidates.” Political Psychology36 (6): 691–708. doi:10.1111/pops.12186.
7.
BauerNichole M.2020. “Running Local: Gender Stereotyping and Female Candidates in Local Elections.” Urban Affairs Review56 (1): 96–123. doi:10.1177/1078087418770807.
8.
BernardJosef. 2012. “Individuální charakteristiky kandidátů ve volbách do zastupitelstev obcí a jejich vliv na volební výsledky.” Sociologický časopis48 (4): 613–40. doi:10.13060/00380288.2012.48.4.05.
9.
BláhaPetr. 2017. “Reprezentace žen na lokální úrovni: Kvalitativní komparativní analýza úspěšnosti žen v českých komunálních volbách 2014.” Politické Vedy20 (3): 150–67.
10.
BristowStephen L.1980. “Women Councillors – An Explanation of the Under-Representation of Women in Local Government.” Local Government Studies6 (3): 73–90. doi:10.1080/03003938008432878.
11.
BullockCharles S.IIIMacManusSusan A.1991. “Municipal Electoral Structure and the Election of Councilwomen.” Journal of Politics53 (1): 75–89. doi:10.2307/2131721.
12.
CarrollSusan J.1994. Women as Candidates in American Politics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
13.
Crowder-MeyerMelody. 2013. “Gendered Recruitment without Trying: How Local Party Recruiters Affect Women’s Representation.” Politics & Gender9 (4): 390–413. doi:10.1017/S1743923X13000391.
14.
Crowder-MeyerMelodySmithAdrienne R.2015. “How the Strategic Context Affects Women’s Emergence and Success in Local Legislative Elections.” Politics, Groups, and Identities3 (2): 295–317. doi:10.1080/21565503.2015.1035286.
15.
Crowder-MeyerMelodyGadarianShana KushnerTrounstineJessica. 2015. “Electoral Institutions, Gender Stereotypes, and Women’s Local Representation.” Politics, Groups, and Identities3 (2): 318–34. doi:10.1080/21565503.2015.1031803.
16.
ČermákDaniel. 2015. “Politické kariéry krajských zastupitelů – srovnání nováčků zvolených v roce 2000 a v roce 2012.” In Na / O kraji. Kraje a jejich představitelé 2000–2013, edited by RyšavýDanČermákDaniel, 63–80. Praha: SLON.
17.
ČopíkJanKopřivaRadekČmejrekJaroslav. 2019. “Mayors As a Variable in Typologies of Local Governments: A Case Study of the Czech Republic.” Local Government Studies. doi:10.1080/03003930.2019.1699069.
18.
DahlerupDrudeLeyenaarMonique, eds. 2013. Breaking Male Dominance in Old Democracies. Oxford: University Press.
19.
FoxRichard L.LawlessJennifer L.2005. “To Run or Not to Run for Office: Explaining Nascent Political Ambition.” American Journal of Political Science49 (3): 642–59. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2005.00147.x.
20.
GigerNathalie. 2009. “Towards A Modern Gender Gap in Europe? A Comparative Analysis of Voting Behavior in Twelve Countries.” The Social Science Journal46 (3): 474–92. doi:10.1016/j.soscij.2009.03.002.
21.
GneezyUriNiederleMurielRustichiniAldo. 2003. “Performance in Competitive Environments: Gender Differences.” Quarterly Journal of Economics118 (3): 1049–74. doi:10.1162/00335530360698496.
HájekLukášBalíkStanislav. 2020. Komunální volby v roce 2018. Brno: Masarykova univerzita.
24.
HolmanMirya R.2017. “Women in Local Government: What We Know and Where We Go from Here.” State and Local Government Review49 (4): 285–96. doi:10.1177/0160323X17732608.
25.
HoogheMarcQuintelierEllen. 2014. “Political Participation in European Countries: The Effect of Authoritarian Rule, Corruption, Lack of Good Governance and Economic Downturn.” Comparative European Politics12 (2): 209–32. doi:10.1057/cep.2013.3.
26.
HoskovecLiborBalíkStanislav. 2010. “Formáty českých lokálních stranických systémů.” Evropská volební studia5 (1): 28–46.
27.
IllnerMichal. 2003. “Thirteen Years of Reforming Sub-National Government in The Czech Republic.” In Reforming Local Government in Europe: Closing the Gap between Democracy and Efficiency, edited by KerstingNorbertVetterAngelika, 261–81. Opladen: Leske + Budrich.
28.
InglehartRonaldNorrisPippa. 2000. “The Developmental Theory of the Gender Gap: Women’s and Men’s Voting Behavior in Global Perspective.” International Political Science Review21 (4): 441–63. doi:10.1177/0192512100214007.
29.
IversenTorbenRosenbluthFrances. 2008. “Work and Power: The Connection Between Female Labor Force Participation and Female Political Representation.” Annual Review of Political Science11: 479–95. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.053106.151342.
30.
JüptnerPetr. 2008. “Local Lists in the Czech Republic.” In Farewell to the Party Model? Independent Local Lists in East and West European Countries, edited by ReiserMarionHoltmannEverhard, 21–38. Baden-Baden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.
31.
KanthakKristinWoonJonathan. 2015. “Women Don’t Run? Election Aversion and Candidate Entry.” American Journal of Political Science59 (3): 595–12. doi:10.1111/ajps.12158.
32.
KjaerUlrikElklitJørgen. 2014. “The Impact of Assembly Size on Representativeness.” The Journal of Legislative Studies20 (2): 156–73. doi:10.1080/13572334.2013.846550.
33.
KjaerUlrikMatlandRichard E.2014. “Women’s Representation in Local Politics in the Nordic Countries—Does Geography Matter?” Paper presented at Urban Affairs Association Annual Meeting, San Antonio, March19–22.
34.
KjaerUlrikKrookMona Lena. 2019. “The Blame Game: Analyzing Gender Bias in Danish Local Elections.” Politics, Groups, and Identities7 (2): 444–55. doi:10.1080/21565503.2018.1564057.
35.
KjaerUlrikKosiara-PedersenKarina. 2019. “The Hourglass Pattern of Women’s Representation.” Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties29 (3): 299–317. doi:10.1080/17457289.2018.1530678.
36.
KrookMona Lena. 2010. “Women’s Representation in Parliament: A Qualitative Comparative Analysis.” Political Studies58 (5): 886–908. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9248.2010.00833.x.
37.
KřížkovskýMatyáš. 2019. “Tíživé dědictví nové politiky v Česku: Zelení jako případneúspěšného morálního populismu.” Central European Journal of Politics5 (1): 30–54.
38.
LaaksoMarkkuTaageperaRein. 1979. “Effective Number of Parties: A Measure with Application to West Europe.” Comparative Political Studies12 (1): 3–27. doi:10.1177/001041407901200101.
39.
LovenduskiJoniNorrisPippa, eds. 1993. Gender and Party Politics. London: Sage.
40.
MacManusSusan A.BullockCharles S.III. 1995. “Electing Women to Local Office.” In Gender in Urban Research, edited by GarberJudith A.TurnerRobyne S., 155–77. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
41.
MaginRaphael. 2013. “Women in Local Assemblies – Rare Guests or (Almost) Equal Partners?” In Women and Representation in Local Government. International case studies, edited by BarbaraPiniMcDonaldPaula, 37–55. Abingdon: Routledge.
42.
MarksGaryHoogheLiesbetNelsonMoiraEdwardsErica. 2006. “Party Competition and European Integration in the East and West.” Comparative Political Studies39 (2): 155–75. doi:10.1177/0010414005281932.
43.
MartinussenPål E. 2004. “Government Performance and Political Accountability at Subnational Level: The Electoral Fate of Local Incumbents in Norway.” Scandinavian Political Studies27 (3): 227–59. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9477.2004.00105.x.
44.
MaškarinecPavel. 2015. “Nationalisation of the Czech Local Party System: Case Study of the 2010 Local Elections in Municipalities with Extended Powers.” Sociológia47 (6): 625–56.
45.
MaškarinecPavel. 2019. “Does Gender Matter? Determinants of Women’s Representation on Corporate Boards of Firms Owned by the Czech Statutory Cities.” Lex Localis – Journal of Local Self-Government14 (4): 961–84. doi:10.4335/17.4.961-984(2019).
46.
MaškarinecPavelKlimovskýDaniel. 2016. “Independent Candidates in the Local Elections of 2014 in the Czech Republic and Slovakia: Analysis of Determinants of Their Successfulness.” Lex Localis – Journal of Local Self-Government14 (4): 853–71. doi:10.4335/14.4.853-871(2016).
47.
MaškarinecPavelKlimovskýDaniel. 2017. “Determinants of Women’s Descriptive Representation in the 2014 Czech and Slovak Local Elections.” Lex Localis – Journal of Local Self-Government15 (3): 387–410. doi:10.4335/15.3.387-410(2017).
48.
MaškarinecPavelKlimovskýDanielDanišová.Stanislava2018. “Politická reprezentace žen na pozicích starostek v Česku a na Slovensku v letech 2006–2014: Srovnávací analýza faktorů úspěšnosti.” Sociologický časopis54 (4): 529–60. doi:10.13060/00380288.2018.54.4.413.
49.
MatlandRichard E.1998. “Women’s Representation in National Legislatures: Developed and Developing Countries.” Legislative Studies Quarterly23 (1): 109–25. doi:10.2307/440217.
50.
MatlandRichard E.BrownDeborah D.1992. “District Magnitudeʼs Effect on Female Representation in State Legislatures.” Legislative Studies Quarterly17 (4): 469–92. doi:10.2307/439862.
51.
MatlandRichard E.MontgomeryKathleen A., eds. 2003. Women’s Access to Political Power in Post-Communist Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
52.
MatlandRichard E.StudlarDonley T.1996. “The Contagion of Women Candidates in Single-Member District and Proportional Representation Electoral Systems: Canada and Norway.” The Journal of Politics58 (3): 707–33. doi:10.2307/2960439.
53.
NiederleMurielVesterlundLise. 2007. “Do Women Shy Away from Competition? Do Men Compete too Much?” Quarterly Journal of Economics122 (3): 1067–101. doi:10.1162/qjec.122.3.1067.
54.
NorrisPippa. 1985. “Women’s Legislative Participation in Western Europe.” West European Politics8 (4): 90–101. doi:10.1080/01402388508424556.
55.
NorrisPippa. 1987. Politics and Sexual Equality: The Comparative Position of Women in Western Democracies. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.
56.
NorrisPippa. 2002. Democratic Phoenix. Reinventing Political Activism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
57.
NorrisPippaLovenduskiJoni. 1995. Political Recruitment: Gender, Race and Class in the British Parliament. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
58.
O’BrienDiana Z.2015. “Rising to the Top: Gender, Political Performance, and Party Leadership in Parliamentary Democracies.” American Journal of Political Science59 (4): 1022–39. doi:10.1111/ajps.12173.
59.
OndercinHeather L.WelchSusan. 2009. “Comparing Predictors of Women’s Congressional Election Success.” American Politics Research37 (4): 593–613. doi:10.1177/1532673X08325198.
60.
OrtbalsCandice D.RinckeryMegMontoyaCeleste. 2011. “Politics Close to Home: The Impact of Meso-level Institutions on Women in Politics.” Publius: The Journal of Federalism42 (1): 78–107. doi:10.1093/publius/pjr029.
61.
PandeRohiniFordDeanna. 2011. Gender Quotas and Female Leadership. Washington: World Bank.
62.
PaxtonPamela. 1997. “Women in National Legislatures: A Cross-National Analysis.” Social Science Research26 (4): 442–64. doi:10.1006/ssre.1997.0603.
63.
PotlukaOtoSvecovaLenkaZarubovaLucie. 2020. “Do Nonprofit Leaders Challenge Political Leaders?” CEPS Working Paper Series 17. Basel: Center for Philanthropy Studies.
64.
PutnamRobert D.1995. “Bowling Alone: Americaʼs Declining Social Capital.” Journal of Democracy6 (1): 65–78. doi:10.1353/jod.1995.0002.
65.
RakušanováPetra. 2005. “Mechanismy inkluze a exkluze žen v politice v České republice.” Gender, rovné příležitosti, výzkum6 (2): 25–30.
66.
RegulskaJoannaFriedSusanaTiefenbacherJohn. 1991. “Women, Politics and Place: Spatial Patterns of Representation in New Jersey.” Geoforum22 (2): 203–21. doi:10.1016/0016-7185(91)90008-E.
67.
RyšavýDan. 2011. “Exekutivci a zastupitelé – mocenská propast nebo odlišné role? In Zastupitelé českých měst a obcí v evropské perspektivě, edited by RyšavýDanŠaradínPavel, 88–107. Praha: SLON.
68.
RyšavýDan. 2015. “Krajští politici včera a dnes.” In Na / O kraji. Kraje a jejich představitelé 2000–2013, edited by RyšavýDanČermákDaniel, 81–103. Praha: SLON.
69.
RyšavýDanBernardJosef. 2013. “Size and Local Democracy: The Case of Czech Municipal Representatives.” Local Government Studies39 (6): 833–52. doi:10.1080/03003930.2012.675329.
70.
RyšavýDanŠaradínPavel. 2010. “Straníci, bezpartijní a nezávislí zastupitelé na českých radnicích.” Sociologický časopis46 (5): 719–43. doi:10.13060/00380288.2010.46.5.02.
71.
SaxonbergSteven. 2003. “Czech Political Parties Prefer Male Candidates to Female Votes.” In Women’s Access to Political Power in Post-Communist Europe, edited by MatlandRichard E.MontgomeryKathleen A., 245–66. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
72.
SchaffnerBrian F.StrebMatthewWrightGerald. 2001. “Teams without Uniforms: The Nonpartisan Ballot in State and Local Elections.” Political Research Quarterly54 (1): 7–30. doi:10.2307/449205.
73.
SiaroffAlan. 2000. “Women’s Representation in Legislatures and Cabinets in Industrial Democracies.” International Political Science Review21 (2): 197–215. doi:10.1177/0192512100212005.
74.
SlobodaMatúš. 2014. “Women’s Participation and Incumbency Advantage in Slovak Cities: The Case Study of Mayoral elections in Slovakia.” Socialiniai Tyrimai/Social Research36 (3): 101–112.
75.
SmithAdrienne R.ReingoldBethOwensMichael Leo. 2012. “The Political Determinants of Women’s Descriptive Representation in Cities.” Political Research Quarterly65 (2): 315–29. doi:10.1177/1065912910395327.
76.
SoukupPetrRabušicLadislav. 2007. “Some Notes on the Obsession of the Czech Social Sciences with Statistical Significance.” Czech Sociological Review43 (2): 379–95. doi:10.13060/00380288.2007.43.2.06.
77.
SpáčPeterVodaPetrBalíkStanislavPinkMichal. 2018. “Politika vykrmování na regionální úrovni. Případ dotací pro obce ve Středočeském kraji.” Sociologický časopis54 (4): 499–528. doi:10.13060/00380288.2018.54.4.412.
78.
SpicerZacharyMcGregorMichaelAlcantaraChristopher. 2017. “Political Opportunity Structures and The Representation of Women and Visible Minorities in Municipal Elections.” Electoral Studies48: 10–18. doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2017.01.002.
79.
StockemerDaniel. 2008. “Women’s Representation in Europe – A Comparison Between the National Parliaments and the European Parliament.” Comparative European Politics6 (4): 463–85. doi:10.1057/cep.2008.2.
80.
StockemerDaniel. 2014. “Women’s Descriptive Representation in Developed and Developing Countries.” International Political Science Review36 (4): 393–408. doi:10.1057/cep.2008.2.
81.
SundströmAkselStockemerDaniel. 2015. “What Determines Women’s Political Representation at the Local Level? A Fine-Grained Analysis of the European Regions.” International Journal of Comparative Sociology56 (3–4): 1–21. doi:10.1177/0020715215595691.
82.
SztwiertniaRadomírHellováDana. 2012. “Ženy v lokální politice – případová studie obcí do tří tisíc obyvatel v Moravskoslezském kraji.” Politologický časopis19 (3): 260–75. doi:10.5817/PC2012-3-260.
83.
ŠárovecDaniel. 2017. “Krajské volby 2016 a nové politické strany v České republice.” Central European Journal of Politics3 (2): 1–25.
84.
TrounstineJessicaValdiniMelody E.2008. “The Context Matters: The Effects of Single-Member versus At-Large Districts on City Council Diversity.” American Journal of Political Science52 (3): 554–69. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2008.00329.x.
85.
TrounstineJessica. 2011. “Evidence of a Local Incumbency Advantage.” Legislative Studies Quarterly36 (2): 255–80. doi:10.1111/j.1939-9162.2011.00013.x.
86.
VengroffRichardNyiriZsoltFugieroMelissa. 2003. “Electoral System and Gender Representation in Sub-National Legislatures: Is there a National Sub–National Gender Gap?” Political Research Quarterly56 (2): 163–73. doi:10.1177/106591290305600205.
87.
VerbaSidneySchlozmanKay LehmanBradyHenry E.1995. Voice and Equality. Civic Voluntarism in American politics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
88.
VodaPetr. 2013. “Analýza preferenčního hlasování.” In Krajské volby 2012, edited by BalíkStanislav, et al, 161–88. Brno: Masarykova univerzita.
89.
VodaPetrSvačinováPetra. 2020. “To Be Central or Peripheral? What Matters for Political Representation in Amalgamated Municipalities?”Urban Affairs Review56 (4): 1206–36. doi:10.1177/1078087418824671.
90.
VohlídalováMartaMaříkováHanaVolejníčkováRomana. 2016a. Postoje české veřejnosti k politice, politické angažovanosti a ženám v politice. Praha: Sociologický ústav AV ČR.
91.
VohlídalováMartaMaříkováHanaČermákováMarieVolejníčkováRomana. 2016b. Sólo pro soprán: O ženách v české politice. Praha: Sociologický ústav AV ČR.
92.
WassersteinRonald L.SchirmAllen L.LazarNicole A.2019. “Moving to a World Beyond ʻp < 0.05ʼ”. The American Statistician7 (S1): 1–19. doi:10.1080/00031305.2019.1583913.
93.
WelchSusanKarnigAlbert K.1979. “Correlates of Female Office Holding in City Politics.” The Journal of Politics41 (2): 478–91. doi:10.2307/2129774.
94.
WelchSusanKarnigAlbert K.EribesRichard A.1983. “Correlates of Womenʼs Employment in Local Governments.” Urban Affairs Review18 (4): 551–64. doi:10.1177/004208168301800410.
95.
ZiliakStephen T.2016. “Statistical Significance and Scientific Misconduct: Improving the Style of the Published Research Paper.” Review of Social Economy74 (1): 83–97. doi:10.1080/00346764.2016.1150730.
