“If I Didn't Ask for It,Don't Show It”: Women's Reactions to Unwanted Sexual Images Sent by Men and the Influence of Sexism,Social Norms,and Sense of Power

Abstract

The unsolicited reception of sexual images is understudied issue with important consequences for women. Our research with 392 Spanish women aged 18–45 years examined the frequency and prevalence of unsolicited genital images, the relationship with the sender, and women's reactions. Results showed that 74% of participants had received such images, mainly from strangers (45.7%) or known men (21.9%). Reactions included blocking, telling friends, expressing rejection, and ignoring. Hostile sexism and adherence to social norms were associated with more positive reactions. Educating about the negative impacts of unsolicited sexual images and addressing sexism and social norms may help combat cyber–sexual violence.

Keywords

dick pics cyber-sexual violence sexism social norms sense of power

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Agadullina

Lovakov

Balezina

Gulevich

O. A.

(2022). Ambivalent sexism and violence toward women: A metaanalysis. European Journal of Social Psychology, 52(5–6), 819–859. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2855

Agueli

Esposito

Arcidiacono

Di Napoli

(2024). Women as bodies. The role of ambivalent sexism and sexual objectification on non-consensual sharing of sexting images. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 34(1), e2749. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2749

Alt

N. P.

Wong Chavez

Dickter

C. L.

Shih

M. J.

(2022). Power and the confrontation of sexism: The impact of measured and manipulated power on confronting behavior. The Journal of Social Psychology, 164(1), 27–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2022.2122767

Álvarez-Muelas

Gómez-Berrocal

Sierra

J. C.

(2021). Typologies of sexual double standard adherence in Spanish population. The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 13(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2021a1

Amundsen

(2021). ‘A male dominance kind of vibe’: Approaching unsolicited dick pics as sexism. New Media & Society, 23(6), 1465–1480. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820907025

Anderson

John

O. P.

Keltner

(2012). The personal sense of power. Journal of Personality, 80(2), 313–344. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00734.x

Ballester-Arnal

Castro-Calvo

García-Barba

Ruiz-Palomino

Gil-Llario

M. D.

(2021). Problematic and non-problematic engagement in online sexual activities across the lifespan. Computers in Human Behavior, 120, 106774. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106774

Bareket

Fiske

S. T.

(2023). A systematic review of the ambivalent sexism literature: Hostile sexism protects men’s power; benevolent sexism guards traditional gender roles. Psychological Bulletin, 149(11-12), 637–698. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000400

Barreto

Ellemers

(2005). The burden of benevolent sexism: How it contributes to the maintenance of gender inequalities. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35(5), 63–642. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.270

10.

Becker

Ford

J. V.

Valshtein

T. J.

(2021). Confusing stalking for romance: Examining the labeling and acceptability of men’s (cyber)stalking of women. Sex Roles, 85, 73–87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01205-2

11.

Bohner

Eyssel

Süssenbach

(2023). Modern myths about sexual aggression: New methods and findings. In Horvath

M. A. H.

Brown

J. M.

(Eds.), Rape: Challenging contemporary thinking 10 years on (pp. 159–171). Routledge.

12.

Chapleau

K. M.

Oswald

D. L.

Russell

B. L.

(2007). How ambivalent sexism toward women and men supports rape myth acceptance. Sex Roles, 57(1-2), 131–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9196-2

13.

Clancy

E. M.

Klettke

Hallford

D. J.

(2019). The dark side of sexting–factors predicting the dissemination of sexts. Computers in Human Behavior, 92, 266–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.023

14.

Dietzel

(2022). The three dimensions of unsolicited dick pics: Men who have sex with men’s experiences of sending and receiving unsolicited dick pics on dating apps. Sexuality & Culture: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly, 26(3), 834–852. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-021-09920-y

15.

Durán

Moya

Megías

J. L.

(2014). Benevolent sexist ideology attributed to an abusive partner decreases women’s active coping responses to acts of sexual violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(8), 1380–1401. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513507134

16.

Durán

Rodríguez-Domínguez

(2023). Sending of unwanted dick pics as a modality of sexual cyber-violence: An exploratory study of its emotional impact and reactions in women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 38(5–6), 5236–5261. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605221120906

17.

Gewirtz-Meydan

Volman-Pampanel

Opuda

Tarshish

(2024). Dating apps: A new emerging platform for sexual harassment? A scoping review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 25(1), 752–763. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380231162969

18.

Glick

Fiske

S. T.

(1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491

19.

Glick

Fiske

S. T.

(2011). Ambivalent sexism revisited. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(3), 530–535. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311414832

20.

Guinote

(2017). How power affects people: Activating, wanting, and goal seeking. Annual Review of Psychology, 68, 353–381. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044153

21.

Henry

Flynn

Powell

(2020). Technology-facilitated domestic and sexual violence: A review. Violence Against Women, 26(15–16), 1828–1854. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219875821

22.

Henry

Powell

(2015). Embodied harms: Gender, shame, and technology-facilitated sexual violence. Violence Against Women, 21(6), 758–779. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215576581

23.

Karasavva

Brunet

Smodis

Swanek

Forth

(2023). Putting the Y in cyberflashing: Exploring the prevalence and predictors of the reasons for sending unsolicited nude or sexual images. Computers in Human Behavior, 140, 107593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107593

24.

Karasavva

Swanek

Smodis

Forth

(2022). Expectations vs reality: Expected and actual affective reactions to unsolicited sexual images. Computers in Human Behavior, 130(6), 107181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107181

25.

Kofoed

Larsen

M. C.

(2016). A snap of intimacy: Photo-sharing practices among young people on social media. First Monday. https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v21i11.6905. Return to ref 2016 in article

26.

López-Fuentes

Calvete

(2015). Building resilience: A qualitative study of Spanish women who have suffered intimate partner violence. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 85(4), 339–351. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000070

27.

Mandau

M. B. H.

(2020). Directly in your face’: A qualitative study on the sending and receiving of unsolicited ‘dick pics’ among young adults. Sexuality & Culture, 24(1), 72–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-019-09626-2

28.

Marcotte

A. S.

Gesselman

A. N.

Fisher

H. E.

Garcia

J. R.

(2021). Women’s and men’s reactions to receiving unsolicited genital images from men. The Journal of Sex Research, 58(4), 512–521. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2020.1779171

29.

Matthews

S. J.

Giuliano

T. A.

Thomas

K. H.

Straup

M. L.

Martinez

M. A.

(2018). Not cool, dude: Perceptions of solicited vs. unsolicited sext messages from men and women. Computers in Human Behavior, 88, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.06.014

30.

Moya-Garófano

Moya

Megías

J. L.

Rodríguez-Bailón

(2022). Ambivalent sexism and women’s reactions to stranger harassment: The case of piropos in Spain. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 46(4), 454–467. https://doi.org/0.1177/03616843221115339

31.

Mulla

M. M.

Witte

T. H.

Richardson

Hart

Kassing

F. L.

Coffey

C. A.

Hackman

C. L.

Sherwood

I. M.

(2019). The causal influence of perceived social norms on intimate partner violence perpetration: Converging cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental support for a social disinhibition model. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(4), 652–668. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218794641

32.

Navarro

Larrañaga

Yubero

Víllora

(2021). Individual, interpersonal and relationship factors associated with ghosting intention and behaviors in adult relationships: Examining the associations over and above being a recipient of ghosting. Telematics and Informatics, 57, 101513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2020.101513

33.

Oliver

Cummings

Puiras

Mazmanian

(2024). Technology-facilitated sexual harassment against women and psychological dysfunction: A test of objectification theory. Violence Against Women, 30(12-13), 3399–3420. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012231177998

34.

Oswald

Lopes

Skoda

Hesse

C. L.

Pedersen

C. L.

(2020). I’ll show you mine so you’ll show me yours: Motivations and personality variables in photographic exhibitionism. Journal of Sex Research, 57(5), 597–609. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1639036

35.

Paasonen

Light

Jarrett

(2019). The dick pic: Harassment, curation, and desire. Social Media + Society, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305119826126

36.

Ringrose

Lawrence

(2018). Remixing misandry, manspreading, and dick pics: Networked feminist humour on tumblr. Feminist Media Studies, 18(4), 686–704. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2018.1450351

37.

Ringrose

Regehr

Whitehead

(2021). Teen girls’ experiences negotiating the ubiquitous dick pic: Sexual double standards and the normalization of image based sexual harassment. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 85(9-10), 558–576. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-021-01236-3

38.

Rodríguez-Castro

Lameiras

Carrera-Fernández

M. V.

(2009). Validation of scales shortened version of ASI and AMI students in a sample of Spanish. Psicogente, 12(22), 284–295.

39.

Salerno-Ferraro

A. C.

Erentzen

Schuller

R. A.

(2022). Young women’s experiences with technology-facilitated sexual violence from male strangers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(19-20), NP17860–NP17885. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211030018

40.

Sciacca

Mazzone

Loftsson

O’Higgins Norman

Foody

(2024). Happy or unhappy? Mental health correlates of receiving sexts and unsolicited sexual images. Youth & Society, 56(7), 1315–1335. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X241230639

41.

Ševčíková

Vašek

Blinka

Macháčková

Ježek

(2021). Markers of sexual life and health in association with internet use for sexual purposes in Czechs aged 50 and older. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 18, 355–367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-020-00463-9

42.

Smith

(2018). Four in ten female millennials have been sent an unsolicited penis photo. YouGov. https://yougov.co.uk/topics/relationships/articles-reports/2018/02/16/four-ten-female-millennials-been-sent-dick-pic

43.

Spanish Department for Gender-Based Violence. (2020). Macroencuesta de violencia contra la mujer 2019 [Macro-surveys of violence against women 2019]. Ministerio de Igualdad. Gobierno de España. https://violenciagenero.igualdad.gob.es/macroencuesta2015/macroencuesta2019/

44.

Spears

(2021). Social influence and group identity. Annual Review of Psychology, 72(1), 367–390. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-070620-111818

45.

Vizcaíno-Cuenca

Romero-Sánchez

Carretero-Dios

(2024). Making visible the myths about cyber-sexual violence against women: An analysis of social reactions toward victims on twitter. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605231222876

46.

Vogels

E. A.

(2021). Online harassment 2021. Pew research center. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2021/01/13/the-state-of-online-harassment/

47.

Waling

Kerr

Bourne

Power

Kehler

(2022). ‘It’s nice to be appreciated’: Understanding heterosexual men’s engagements with sexting and sharing dick pics. Sexualities, 25(3), 198–221. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460720947297

48.

Waling

Pym

(2019). ‘C’mon, no one wants a dick pic’: Exploring the cultural framings of the ‘dick pic’ in contemporary online publics. Journal of Gender Studies, 28(1), 70–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2017.1394821

49.

Wéry

Billieux

(2016). Online sexual activities: An exploratory study of problematic and non-problematic usage patterns in a sample of men. Computers in Human Behavior, 56, 257–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.046

50.

Willis

G. B.

Carretero-Dios

Rodríguez-Bailón

Petkanopoulou

(2016). Spanish version of the generalized sense of power scale. Journal of Social Psychology, 31(3), 554–588. https://doi.org/10.1080/02134748.2016.1190131

51.

Zawisza

Kosakowska-Berezecka

Glick

Olech

Besta

Jurek

Sobiecki

Best

D. L.

Bosson

J. K.

Vandello

J. A.

Safdar

Włodarczyk

Żadkowska

(2025). Worse for Women, Bad for All: A 62-Nation Study Confirms and Extends Ambivalent Sexism Principles to Reveal Greater Social Dysfunction in Sexist Nations. Social Psychological and Personality Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506241302882

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.02 MB