This study examines the link between the loss of men’s status as breadwinners and their use of intimate partner violence (IPV) in Kirumba (Mwanza city, Tanzania), mediated by the entry of women into the cash work force. Using qualitative data from 20 in-depth interviews and eight focus groups with men (n = 58) and women (n = 58), this article explores how the existing gender-related social norm linked to male breadwinning was threatened when women were forced to enter into paid work (linked to the family’s impoverishment), and how these changes eventually increased partner violence. The study draws implications for IPV reduction strategies in patriarchal contexts experiencing declining economic opportunities for men.
AminS.KhanT. F.RahmanL.NavedR. T. (2013). Mapping violence against women in Bangladesh: A multilevel analysis of demographic and health survey data. In NavedR. T.AminS. (Eds.), From evidence to policy: Addressing gender-based violence against women and girls in Bangladesh (pp. 22–51). International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh.
2.
AndersonK. L. (1997). Gender, status, and domestic violence: An integration of feminist and family violence approaches. Journal of Marriage and Family, 59, 655–669.
3.
AndersonK. L. (2005). Theorizing gender in intimate partner violence research. Sex Roles, 52(11–12), 853–865.
4.
BanduraA. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Prentice Hall.
5.
BanerjeeN. (1998). Household dynamics and women in a changing economy. In KrishnarajM.SudarshanR. M.ShariffA. (Eds.), Gender, population and development (pp. 245–266). Oxford University Press.
6.
BarterC.RenoldE. (1999). The use of vignettes in qualitative research. Social Research Update, 25(9), 1–6.
7.
BatesL. M.SchulerS. R.IslamF.IslamM. K. (2004). Socioeconomic factors and processes associated with domestic violence in rural Bangladesh. International Family Planning Perspectives, 30, 190–199.
8.
BicchieriC. (2006). The grammar of society: The nature and dynamics of social norms. Cambridge University Press.
ButlerJ. (2006). Performative acts and gender constitution: An essay in phenomenology and feminist theory. In ArnotM.Mac an GhaillM. (Eds.), The RoutledgeFalmer reader in gender & education (pp. 73–83). Routledge.
15.
CialdiniR. B.GoldsteinN. J. (2004). Social influence: Compliance and conformity. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 591–621.
16.
CialdiniR. B.KallgrenC. A.RenoR. R. (1991). A focus theory of normative conduct: A theoretical refinement and reevaluation of the role of norms in human behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 24, 201–234.
CislaghiB.HeiseL. (2018). Four avenues of normative influence: A research agenda for health promotion in low and mid-income countries. Health Psychology, 37, 562–573.
19.
CorbinJ.MorseJ. M. (2003). The unstructured interactive interview: Issues of reciprocity and risks when dealing with sensitive topics. Qualitative Inquiry, 9(3), 335–354.
20.
CoyleJ.WilliamsB. (2000). An exploration of the epistemological intricacies of using qualitative data to develop a quantitative measure of user views of health care. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 31(5), 1235–1243.
21.
DeepaN.ChambersR.ShahM. K.PeteschP. (2000). Voices of the poor: Crying out for change. World Bank.
22.
DufloE. (2012). Women empowerment and economic development. Journal of Economic Literature, 50(4), 1051–1079.
23.
EllisA. (2007). Gender and economic growth in Tanzania: Creating opportunities for women. World Bank.
24.
EllsbergM. C.HeiseL., & World Health Organization. (2005). Researching violence against women: Practical guidelines for researchers and activists. World Health Organization.
25.
FeinsteinS.FeinsteinR.SabrowS. (2010). Gender inequality in the division of household labour in Tanzania. African Sociological Review/Revue Africaine de Sociologie, 14(2), 98–109.
26.
FiskeS. T.GilbertD. T.LindzeyG. (2010). Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2). John Wiley.
27.
Garcia-MorenoC.HeiseL.JansenH. A.EllsbergM.WattsC. (2005). Public health. Violence against women. Science, 310(5752), 1282–1283.
28.
GellesR. J. (1972). The violent home: A study of physical aggression between husbands and wives. Sage.
29.
GoodeW. J. (1971). Force and violence in the family. Journal of Marriage and Family, 33, 624–636.
30.
GrossK.MayumanaI.ObristB. (2013). “My wife, you are supposed to have a rest now”: An analysis of norms influencing men’s role in prenatal care in south-eastern Tanzania. Anthropology & Medicine, 20(1), 98–108.
31.
HadiA. (2000). Prevalence and correlates of the risk of marital sexual violence in Bangladesh. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15(8), 787–805.
32.
HowlandR. J.KoenenA. (2014). Divorce and polygamy in Tanzania. Social Justice, 15, 1–40.
33.
JewkesR. K. (2002). Intimate partner violence: Causes and prevention. Lancet, 359(9315), 1423–1429.
34.
JewkesR. K.DunkleK.NdunaM.ShaiN. (2010). Intimate partner violence, relationship power inequity, and incidence of HIV infection in young women in South Africa: A cohort study. Lancet, 376(9734), 41–48.
35.
JewkesR. K.FloodM.LangJ. (2015). From work with men and boys to changes of social norms and reduction of inequities in gender relations: A conceptual shift in prevention of violence against women and girls. Lancet, 385(9977), 1580–1589. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(14)61683-4
36.
KabeerN. (2016). Gender equality, economic growth, and women’s agency: The “endless variety” and “monotonous similarity” of patriarchal constraints. Feminist Economics, 22(1), 295–321.
37.
KabeerN.MahmudS.TasneemS. (2011). Does paid work provide a pathway to women’s empowerment? Empirical findings from Bangladesh [Working paper]. Institute of Development Studies.
38.
KandiyotiD. (1988). Bargaining with patriarchy. Gender & Society, 2(3), 274–290.
39.
LaisserR. M.NyströmL.LuginaH. I.EmmelinM. (2011). Community perceptions of intimate partner violence—A qualitative study from urban Tanzania. BMC Women’s Health, 11(1), Article 13.
40.
LugallaJ. L. (1997). Economic reforms and health conditions of the urban poor in Tanzania. African Studies Quarterly, 1(2), 19–37.
41.
MackieG. (1996). Ending footbinding and infibulation: A convention account. American Sociological Review, 61, 999–1017.
MascarenhasO. (2007). Gender profile of Tanzania: Enhancing gender equity. Tanzania Gender Networking Programme.
45.
MbilinyiM. (1993). Struggles over patriarchal structural adjustment in Tanzania. Gender & Development, 1(3), 26–29.
46.
McCleary-SillsJ.NamyS.NyoniJ.RweyemamuD.SalvatoryA.StevenE. (2016). Stigma, shame and women’s limited agency in help-seeking for intimate partner violence. Global Public Health, 11(1–2), 224–235.
47.
MerriamS. B.Johnson-BaileyJ.LeeM.-Y.KeeY.NtseaneG.MuhamadM. (2001). Power and positionality: Negotiating insider/outsider status within and across cultures. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 20(5), 405–416.
48.
MoshaI.RubenR.KakokoD. (2013). Family planning decisions, perceptions and gender dynamics among couples in Mwanza, Tanzania: A qualitative study. BMC Public Health, 13(1), Article 523.
NavedR. T.PerssonL. Å. (2005). Factors associated with spousal physical violence against women in Bangladesh. Studies in Family Planning, 36(4), 289–300.
52.
NeergaardH.UlhøiJ. P. (2007). Handbook of qualitative research methods in entrepreneurship. Edward Elgar.
53.
O’BrienJ. E. (1971). Violence in divorce prone families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 33, 692–698.
54.
PadillaM. B.HirschJ. S.Muñoz-LaboyM.SemberR. E.ParkerR. G. (2007). Cross-cultural reflections on an intimate intersection. In PadillaM. B.HirschJ. S.Muñoz-LaboyM.SemberR. E.ParkerR. G. (Eds.), Love and globalization: Transformations of intimacy in the contemporary world (pp. ix–xxi). Vanderbilt University Press.
55.
PaluckE. L. (2009). What’s in a norm? Sources and processes of norm change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 594–600.
56.
PrenticeD. A. (2012). The psychology of social norms and the promotion of human rights. In GoodmanR.JinksD.WoodsA. K. (Eds.), Understanding social action, promoting human rights (pp. 23–43). Oxford University Press.
57.
ReynoldsJ.KizitoJ.EzumahN.MangeshoP.AllenE.ChandlerC. (2011). Quality assurance of qualitative research: A review of the discourse. Health Research Policy and Systems, 9(1), Article 43.
58.
RhodesP. J. (1994). Race-of-interviewer effects: A brief comment. Sociology, 28(2), 547–558.
59.
RidgewayC. L.CorrellS. J. (2004). Unpacking the gender system a theoretical perspective on gender beliefs and social relations. Gender & Society, 18(4), 510–531.
60.
RodmanH. (1972). Marital power and the theory of resources in cultural context. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 3(1), 50–69.
61.
SchulerS. R.LenziR.BadalS. H.NazneenS. (2018). Men’s perspectives on women’s empowerment and intimate partner violence in rural Bangladesh. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 20(1), 113–127.
62.
SchulerS. R.LenziR.NazneenS.BatesL. M. (2013). Perceived decline in intimate partner violence against women in Bangladesh: Qualitative evidence. Studies in Family Planning, 44(3), 243–257.
63.
SchulerS. R.NazneenS. (2018). Does intimate partner violence decline as women’s empowerment becomes normative? Perspectives of Bangladeshi women. World Development, 101, 284–292.
64.
SeguinoS. (2013). Toward gender justice: Confronting stratification and unequal power. Géneros: Multidisciplinary Journal of Gender Studies, 2(1), 1–36.
SilberschmidtM. (2001). Disempowerment of men in rural and urban East Africa: Implications for male identity and sexual behavior. World Development, 29(4), 657–671.
67.
SilberschmidtM. (2004). Masculinities, sexuality and socio-economic change in rural and urban East Africa. In ArnfredS. (Ed.), Re-thinking sexualities in Africa (pp. 233–248). Almqvist & Wiksell Tryckeri.
68.
SternE.HeiseL.McLeanL. (2018). The doing and undoing of male household decision-making and economic authority in Rwanda and its implications for gender transformative programming. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 20, 976–991.
VyasS.MbwamboJ.HeiseL. (2015). Women’s paid work and intimate partner violence: Insights from Tanzania. Feminist Economics, 21(1),xs 35–58.
71.
WestC.ZimmermanD. H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender & Society, 1(2), 125–151.
72.
YilmazK. (2013). Comparison of quantitative and qualitative research traditions: Epistemological, theoretical, and methodological differences. European Journal of Education, 48(2), 311–325.
