The article presents a hybrid analysis combining manual content analysis of 9,131 sources in 5,544 news stories across 75 publications, with computational gender recognition producing 551,102 names from 320,228 articles across 125 newspapers. The article investigates the significance of structural features for the presence of women in the news. Results show female sources are only equal to men as ordinary citizens and children, and only in lifestyle content. Among the structural features examined, only local distribution and a circulation less than 5,000 exhibit improvements in female representation. Ownership, distribution frequency, market position, and direct press support had little or no effect.
AalbergT. (2009). Kritiske kvinner og medievridde menn: En empirisk studie av stortingsmedlemmers forhold til norske medier [Critical women and mediatised men: An empirical study of Parliamentary members’ relationship with Norwegian media]. Norsk Medietidsskrift, 16, 100-119.
2.
AdayS.DevittJ. (2001). Style over substance: Newspaper coverage of Elizabeth Dole’s presidential bid. The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 6, 52-73.
3.
AlexanderP. J.CunninghamB. M. (2004). Diversity in broadcast television: An empirical study of local news. International Journal of Media Management, 6, 176-183.
4.
AllernS. (1996). Kildenes makt: Ytringsfrihetens politiske økonomi [The power of sources: The political economy of freedom of expression]. Oslo, Norway: Pax.
5.
AllernS. (2001). Nyhetsverdier: Om markedsorientering og journalistikk i ti norske aviser [News values: Market orientation and journalism in ten Norwegian newspapers]. Oslo, Norway: IJ-forlaget.
6.
ArmstrongC. L. (2004). The influence of reporter gender on source selection in newspaper stories. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 81, 139-154.
7.
ArmstrongC. L.GaoF. (2011). Gender, Twitter and news content: An examination across platforms and coverage areas. Journalism Studies, 12, 490-505.
8.
BagdikianB. H. (2004). The new media monopoly. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
9.
BaitingerG. (2015). Meet the press or meet the men? Examining women’s presence in American news media. Political Research Quarterly, 68, 579-592.
10.
BakerC. E. (2007). Media concentration and democracy: Why ownership matters. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
11.
BaumgartnerF. R.BonafontL. C. (2015). All news is bad news: Newspaper coverage of political parties in Spain. Political Communication, 32, 268-291.
12.
BeamR. A.Di CiccoD. T. (2010). When women run the newsroom: Management change, gender, and the news. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 87, 393-411.
13.
BennettW. L. (1990). Toward a theory of press-state relations in the United States. Journal of Communication, 40, 103-127.
14.
BensonR. (2009). What makes news more multiperspectival? A field analysis. Poetics, 37, 402-418.
15.
BerkowitzD. A. (2009). Reporters and their sources. In Wahl-JorgensenK.HanitzschT. (Eds.), The handbook of journalism studies (pp. 102-115). London, England: Routledge.
16.
Blach-ØrstenM. (2013). The emergence of an increasingly competitive news regime in Denmark. In KuhnR.NielsenR. K. (Eds.), Political journalism in transition: Western Europe in a comparative perspective (pp. 93-110). London, England: I.B. Tauris.
17.
Blach-ØrstenM. B.WilligI. (2016). Den felles dagsorden og alle de andre: En nyhedsugeanalyse av medieinnhold, mediebrug og medieforvetninger [The common news agenda and all the rest: A newsweek analysis of media content, media use and media expectations]. Frederiksberg, Denmark: Samfundslitteratur.
18.
BridgesJ. A.LitmanB. R.BridgesL. W. (2002). Rosse’s model revisited: Moving to concentric circles to explain newspaper competition. The Journal of Media Economics, 15, 3-19.
19.
BrownJ. D.BybeeC. R.WeardenS. T.StaughanD. M. (1987). Invisible power: Newspaper news sources and the limits of diversity. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 64, 45-54.
20.
BrunsC.HimmlerO. (2011). Newspaper circulation and local government efficiency. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 113, 470-492.
21.
CoronelJ. C.FedermeierK. D. (2016). The effects of gender cues and political sophistication on candidate evaluation: A comparison of self-reported and eye-movement measures of stereotyping. Communication Research, 43, 922-944.
22.
CottleS. (1998). Making ethnic minority programmes inside the BBC: Professional pragmatics and cultural containment. Media, Culture & Society, 20, 295-317.
23.
CraftS.WantaW. (2004). Women in the newsroom: Influences of female editors and reporters on the news agenda. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 81, 124-138.
24.
DahlstrømH. K.HognestadL. I. (2016). Nedbemanning som utfordring for journalistikken [Down-sizing as a challenge for journalism]. Norsk Medietidsskrift, 23(2), 1-19.
25.
DanV.IorgoveanuA. (2013). Still on the beaten path: How gender impacted the coverage of male and female Romanian candidates for European office. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 18, 208-233.
26.
DesmondR.DanilewiczA. (2010). Women are on, but not in, the news: Gender roles in local television news. Sex Roles, 62, 822-829.
27.
De SwertK.HoogheM. (2010). When do women get a voice? Explaining the presence of female news sources in Belgian news broadcasts (2003-5). European Journal of Communication, 25, 69-84.
28.
DevittJ. (2002). Framing gender on the campaign trail: Female gubernatorial candidates and the press. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 79, 445-463.
29.
Djerf-PierreM. (2007). The gender of journalism. Nordicom Review, 28, 81-104.
30.
EdströmM.MølsterR. (2014). Making change: Nordic examples of working towards gender equality in the media. Stockholm, Sweden: Nordicom.
31.
EideE. (2001). Mannsbastioner med iboende treghet [Male-dominated sectors with inherent inertia]. In EideM. (Ed.), Til Dagsorden! Journalistikk, makt og demokrati [Journalism, power and democracy] (pp. 329-353). Oslo, Norway: Gyldendal.
32.
EkströmM.JohanssonB.LarssonL. (2006). Journalism and local politics: A study of scrutiny and accountability in Swedish journalism. Journalism Studies, 7, 292-311.
33.
EnganB. (2016). Et informert valg? Offentlighet, patriotisme og pressens lokale samfunnsoppdrag [An informed choice? Publicness, patriotism and the local social contract of the press]. Norsk Medietidsskrift, 23(2), 1-19.
34.
EntmanR. M. (2005). The nature and sources of news. In OverholserG.JamiesonK. H. (Eds.), The institutions of American democracy: The press (pp. 48-65). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
35.
EspelandG. (2006). Lokalavisa nær og kjær [Local newspapers near and dear]. Oslo, Norway: Landslaget for lokalaviser.
36.
EttemaJ. S.GlasserT. L. (1998). Custodians of conscience: Investigative journalism and public virtue. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
37.
FurhoffL. (1967). Upplagesspiralen [The circulation spiral]. Stockholm, Sweden: Svenska Bokförlaget/Norstedts.
38.
GabszewiczJ. J.LausselD.SonnacN. (2002). Press advertising and the political differentiation of newspapers. Journal of Public Economic Theory, 4, 317-334.
39.
GansH. (1979). Deciding what’s news: A study of CBS Evening News, NBC Nightly News, Newsweek, and Time. New York, NY: Vintage Books.
GentzkowM.ShapiroJ. M. (2008). Competition and truth in the market for news. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 22, 133-154.
42.
GidengilE.EverittJ. (1999). Metaphors and misrepresentation: Gendered mediation in news coverage of the 1993 Canadian leaders’ debates. The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 4, 48-65.
43.
HallinD. C.ManciniP. (2004). Comparing media systems: Three models of media and politics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
44.
HanuschF. (2015). A different breed altogether? Distinctions between local and metropolitan journalism cultures. Journalism Studies, 16, 816-833.
45.
HargittaiE.JennrichK. (2016). The online participation divide. In LloydM.FriedlandL. A. (Eds.), The communication crisis in America, and how to fix it (pp. 199-213). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
46.
HartleyJ.PottsJ.CunninghamS.FlewT.KeaneM.BanksJ. (2013). Key concepts in creative industries. London, England: SAGE.
47.
HatcherJ.HaavikE. (2014). “We write with our hearts”: How community identity shapes Norwegian community journalists’ news values. Journalism Practice, 8, 149-163.
48.
HessK. (2016). Ritual power: Illuminating the blind spot of births, deaths and marriages in news media research. Journalism, 17, 511-526.
49.
HindmanD. B.LittlefieldR.PrestonA.NeumannD. (1999). Structural pluralism, ethnic pluralism, and community newspapers. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 76, 250-263.
50.
HorstiK.HulténG. (2011). Directing diversity: Managing cultural diversity media policies in Finnish and Swedish public service broadcasting. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 14, 209-227.
51.
HorwitzR. B. (2005). On media concentration and the diversity question. The Information Society: An International Journal, 21, 181-204.
52.
HumprechtE.BüchelF. (2013). More of the same or marketplace of opinions? A cross-national comparison of diversity on online news reporting. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 18, 436-461.
53.
I ytringsfrihetens tjeneste: Mål og virkemidler i mediepolitikken [Freedom of speech: Aims and measures in media policy]. (2000-2001). (White Paper no. 57). Oslo, Norway: Ministry of Culture.
54.
JeffresL. W.CutiettaC.SekeraL.LeeJ. (2000). Newspapers, pluralism, and diversity in an urban context. Mass Communication and Society, 3, 157-184.
55.
JohansenB. (2015). Named entity chunking for Norwegian text using Support Vector Machines. Ålesund, Norway: NIK: Norsk Informatikkonferanse.
56.
Kaitatzi-WhitlockS. (1996). Pluralism and media concentration in Europe: Media policy as industrial policy. European Journal of Communication, 11, 453-483.
57.
KleemansM.SchaapG.HermansL. (2017). Citizen sources in the news: Above and beyond the vox pop?Journalism, 18, 464-481.
58.
KrippendorffK. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
59.
LacyS.FicoF. (1991). The link between newspaper content quality & circulation. Newspaper Research Journal, 12, 46-57.
60.
LacyS.RobinsonK.RiffeD. (1995). Sample size in content analysis of weekly newspapers. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 72, 336-345.
61.
LavieA.Lehman-WilzigS. (2003). Whose news? Does gender determine the editorial product?European Journal of Communication, 18, 5-29.
62.
LieblerC. M.SmithS. J. (1997). Tracking gender differences: A comparative analysis of network correspondents and their sources. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 41, 58-68.
63.
LundA. B. (2007). Media markets in Scandinavia: Political economy aspects of convergence and divergence. Nordicom Review, 28, 121-134.
64.
MathisenB. R. (Ed.). (2010). Lokaljournalistikk: Blind patriotisme eller kritisk korrektiv? [Local journalism: Blind patriotism or critical corrective?]. Kristiansand, Norway: Høyskoleforlaget.
65.
MathisenB. R.MolandstøL. (2015). Regionale motstemmer i nasjonal offentlighet [Regional counter voices in the national public sphere]. Norsk Medietidsskrift, 22(4), 1-19.
66.
McCombsM. (2005). A look at agenda-setting: Past, present and future. Journalism Studies, 6, 543-557.
67.
McQuailD. (1992). Media performance: Mass communication and the public interest. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
68.
MeeksL.DomkeD. (2016). When politics is a woman’s game: Party and gender ownership in woman-versus-woman elections. Communication Research, 43, 895-921.
69.
MolandstøL.LamarkH. (2015). Skjevt på nett og brett [Skewed online and on the pad]. In EideE.OrgeretK. S. (Eds.), Etter beste kjønn: Kjønnsperspektiver på medier og journalistikk [Gender perspectives on media and journalism] (pp. 77-91). Oslo, Norway: Universitetsforlaget.
70.
NeuendorfK. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
71.
NielsenR. K. (2015). Local journalism: The decline of newspapers and the rise of digital media. London, England: I.B. Tauris.
72.
OtsM. (2009). Efficient servants of pluralism or marginalized media policy tools?Journal of Communication Enquiry, 33, 376-392.
73.
PaekH. J.YoonS. H.ShahD. V. (2005). Local news, social integration, and community participation: Hierarchical linear modeling of contextual and cross-level effects. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 82, 587-606.
74.
PaulyJ. J.EckertM. (2002). The myth of the local in American journalism. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 79, 310-326.
75.
PicardR. G. (1985). The press and the decline of democracy: The democratic socialist response in public policy (Vol. 4). Westport, CT: Greenwood.
76.
PicardR. G. (2003). Press support and company performance. In CarlssonU. (Ed.), Penningen & Politiken: Medieföretag förroch nu (pp. 96-107). Gothenburg, Sweden: Nordicom.
77.
PollackE. (2009). Extra. Extra. Hon sågas – hon avgår [Extra. Extra. She’s cut—She resigns]. In AllernS.PollackE. (Eds.), Skandalenes markedsplass: politikk, moral og mediedrev [The scandal’s market place: Politics, morals and media attention] (pp. 99-120). Bergen, Norway: Fagbokforlaget.
78.
RaddumT.VeumA. (2006). Avistekstens mange stemmer [The many voices of newspaper text]. Norsk Medietidsskrift, 13, 135-158.
79.
ReichZ.GodlerY. (2015, May). Why is there diversity in the news? On the explanatory power of structure and practice. Paper presented at the International Communication Association Annual Conference, San Juan, Puerto Rico.
80.
ReinemannC.StanyerJ.ScherrS.LegnanteG. (2012). Hard and soft news: A review of concepts, operationalizations and key findings. Journalism, 13, 221-239.
81.
RichardsI. (2013). Beyond city limits: Regional journalism and social capital. Journalism, 14, 627-642.
82.
RoseneilS.HalsaaB.SümerS. (2012). Remaking citizenship in multicultural Europe: Women’s movements, gender and diversity. In RoseneilS.HalsaaB.SümerS. (Eds.), Remaking citizenship in multicultural Europe (pp. 1-20). London, England: Palgrave Macmillan.
83.
RossK. (2007). The journalist, the housewife, the citizen and the press: Women and men as sources in local news narratives. Journalism, 8, 449-473.
84.
RossK.CarterC. (2011). Women and news: A long and winding road. Media, Culture & Society, 33, 1148-1165.
85.
RossK.EvansE.HarrisonL.ShearsM.WadiaK. (2013). The gender of news and news of gender: A study of sex, politics, and press coverage of the 2010 British general election. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 18, 3-20.
86.
RossK.PadovaniC. (Eds.). (2017). Gender equality and the media. New York, NY: Routledge.
87.
RosseJ. N. (1980). The decline of direct newspaper competition. Journal of Communication, 30, 65-71.
88.
SaveI.HagenÅ. H. (2015). Et skritt i riktig retning [A step in the right direction]. In EideE.OrgeretK. S. (Eds.), Etter beste kjønn: Kjønnsperspektiver på medier og journalistikk [Gender perspectives on media and journalism] (pp. 77-91). Oslo, Norway: Universitetsforlaget.
89.
SjøvaagH. (2014). Homogenisation or differentiation? The effects of consolidation in the regional newspaper market. Journalism Studies, 15, 511-521.
90.
SkogerbøE.KrumsvikA. H. (2015). Newspapers, Facebook and Twitter: Intermedial agenda setting in local election campaigns. Journalism Practice, 9, 350-366.
91.
SkogerbøE.WinsvoldM. (2011). Audiences on the move? Use and assessment of local print and online newspapers. European Journal of Communication, 26, 214-229.
92.
SøndergaardH. (1999). Some reflections on public service broadcasting. Nordicom Review, 20, 21-28.
StrömbäckJ.NordL. W. (2006). Do politicians lead the tango? A study of the relationship between Swedish journalists and their political sources in the context of election campaigns. European Journal of Communication, 21, 147-164.
96.
TufteT. (2003). Medierne, minoriteterne og det multikulturelle samfund: skandinaviske perspektiver [Media, minorities and the multicultural society: Scandinavian perspectives]. Stockholm, Sweden: Nordicom.
97.
Van CuilenburgJ.van der WurffR. (2007). Toward easy-to-measure media diversity indicators. In de BensE. (Ed.), Media between culture and commerce (pp. 99-114). Chicago, IL: Intellect.
98.
Van DalenA. (2012). Structural bias in cross-national perspective: How political systems and journalism cultures influence government dominance in the news. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 17, 32-55.
99.
Van ZoonenL. (1988). Rethinking women and the news. European Journal of Communication, 3, 35-53.
100.
Van ZoonenL. (2002). One of the girls? The changing gender of journalism. In CarterC.BranstonG.AllanS. (Eds.), News, gender and power (pp. 33-46). Hoboken, NJ: Taylor & Francis.
101.
VonbunR.Kleinen-von KönigslöwK. K. V.SchoenbachK. (2016). Intermedia agenda-setting in a multimedia news environment. Journalism, 17, 1054-1073.
102.
VuH. T.LeeT.DuongH. T.BarnettB. (2018). Gendering leadership in Vietnamese media: A role congruity study on news content and journalists’ perception of female and male leaders. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/1077699017714224
103.
WolfsfeldG.SheaferT. (2006). Competing actors and the construction of political news: The contest over waves in Israel. Political Communication, 23, 333-354.
104.
ZamithR.LewisS. C. (2015). Content analysis and the algorithmic coder: What computational social science means for traditional modes of media analysis. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 659, 307-318.
105.
ZochL. M.TurkJ. V. (1998). Women making news: Gender as a variable in source selection and use. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 75, 762-775.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
