On the Motivations to Seek Information From Artificial Intelligence Agents Versus Humans: A Risk Information Seeking and Processing Perspective

Abstract

This study investigates how anticipating an artificial intelligence agent versus human information source moderates the risk information seeking and processing model. It focuses on a behavioral proxy of seeking intention—how long a participant waited for an online consultant whose identity was manipulated. In two samples (N₁ = 182 students and N₂ = 800 mturkers), the source identity consistently moderated the model in two ways: First, informational subjective norms encouraged seeking from humans but discouraged seeking from AI agents. Second, information insufficiency drove favoritism toward humans–when perceived information-gathering capacity was high. When the capacity was low, AI agents were favored.

Keywords

risk information seeking and processing machine agency artificial intelligence AI agent chatbot

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abele

A. E.

Wojciszke

(2014). Content in social cognition: A dual perspective model. In Olson

J. M.

Zanna

M. P.

(Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 50, pp. 195–255). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800284-1.00004-7

Afifi

W. A.

Weiner

J. L.

(2004). Toward a theory of motivated information management. Communication Theory, 14(2), 167–190. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00310.x

Ajzen

(1985). From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. In Kuhland

Beckman

(Eds.), Action-control: From cognitions to behavior (1–2, pp. 11–39). Springer.

Ajzen

(1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T

Asch

S. E.

(1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 193(5), 31–35.

Bandura

(1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191

Bandura

(1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control (pp. ix, 604). W H Freeman.

Bartsch

Schneider

F. M.

(2014). Entertainment and politics revisited: How non-escapist forms of entertainment can stimulate political interest and information seeking. Journal of Communication, 64(3), 369–396. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12095

Batt

R. J.

Terwiesch

(2015). Waiting patiently: An empirical study of queue abandonment in an emergency department. Management Science, 61(1), 39–59.

10.

Berger

C. R.

(1979). Beyond initial interaction: Uncertainty, understanding, and the development of interpersonal relationships. In Giles

Clair

R. N. S.

(Eds.), Language and social psychology (pp. 122–144). University Park Press.

11.

Berger

C. R.

Calabrese

R. J.

(1975). Some explorations in initial interaction and beyond: Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication. Human Communication Research, 1, 99–112. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1975.tb00258.x

12.

Brashers

D. E.

Goldsmith

D. J.

Hsieh

(2002). Information seeking and avoiding in health contexts. Human Communication Research, 28(2), 258–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2002.tb00807.x

13.

Burton

J. W.

Stein

M.-K.

Jensen

T. B.

(2020). A systematic review of algorithm aversion in augmented decision making. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 33(2), 220–239. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.2155

14.

Cacioppo

J. T.

Petty

R. E.

(1982). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 116–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116

15.

Chaffee

S. H.

(1986). Mass media and interpersonal channels: Competitive, convergent, or complementary? In Gumpert

Cathcart

(Eds.), Inter/media: Interpersonal communication in a media world (3rd ed., pp. 32–80). Oxford University Press.

16.

Cialdini

R. B.

Goldstein

N. J.

(2004). Social influence: Compliance and conformity. Annual Review of Psychology, 55(1), 591–621. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142015

17.

Clusmann

Kolbinger

F. R.

Muti

H. S.

Carrero

Z. I.

Eckardt

J.-N.

Laleh

N. G.

Löffler

C. M. L.

Schwarzkopf

S.-C.

Unger

Veldhuizen

G. P.

Wagner

S. J.

Kather

J. N.

(2023). The future landscape of large language models in medicine. Communications Medicine, 3(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43856-023-00370-1

18.

Deutsch

Gerard

H. B.

(1955). A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51(3), 629–636. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046408

19.

Dietvorst

B. J.

Simmons

J. P.

Massey

(2015). Algorithm aversion: People erroneously avoid algorithms after seeing them err. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(1), 114–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000033

20.

Dunbar

N. E.

(2004). Dyadic power theory: Constructing a communication-based theory of relational power. Journal of Family Communication, 4, 235–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/15267431.2004.9670133

21.

Dunwoody

Griffin

R. J.

(2013). The role of channel beliefs in risk information seeking. In Arvai

Rivers

III (Eds.), Effective risk communication (pp. 246–259). Routledge.

22.

Eagly

A. H.

Chaiken

(1993). The psychology of attitudes (pp. xxii, 794). Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.

23.

Edwards

Spence

P. R.

Westerman

(2016). Initial interaction expectations with robots: Testing the human-to-human interaction script. Communication Studies, 67(2), 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2015.1121899

24.

Fishbein

Ajzen

(2010). Predicting and changing behavior: The reasoned action approach. Psychology Press.

25.

Fishbein

Ajzen

(2011). Predicting and changing behavior: The reasoned action approach. Taylor & Francis.

26.

Fiske

S. T.

(2010). Interpersonal stratification: Status, power, and subordination. In Gilbert

D. T.

Fiske

S. T.

Lindzey

(Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2, 5th ed., pp. 941–982). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy002026

27.

Fiske

S. T.

Cuddy

A. J. C.

Glick

(2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 878–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878

28.

Frederick

Loewenstein

O’Donoghue

(2002). Time discounting and time preference: A critical review. Journal of Economic Literature, 40(2), 351–401. https://doi.org/10.1257/002205102320161311

29.

Gambino

Fox

Ratan

(2020). Building a stronger casa: Extending the computers are social actors paradigm. Human-Machine Communication, 1(1), 71–86. https://doi.org/10.30658/hmc.1.5

30.

Gibbs

Kirkwood

Fang

Wilkenfeld

(2021). Negotiating agency and control: Theorizing human-machine communication from a structurational perspective. Human-Machine Communication, 2(1), 153–171. https://doi.org/10.30658/hmc.2.8

31.

Giebelhausen

M. D.

Robinson

S. G.

Cronin

J. J.

Jr. (2011). Worth waiting for: Increasing satisfaction by making consumers wait. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 39(6), 889–905. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-010-0222-5

32.

Griffin

R. J.

Dunwoody

Neuwirth

(1999). Proposed model of the relationship of risk information seeking and processing to the development of preventive behaviors. Environmental Research, 80(2 Pt 2), S230–S245. https://doi.org/10.1006/enrs.1998.3940

33.

Griffin

R. J.

Dunwoody

Yang

Z. J.

(2013). Linking risk messages to information seeking and processing. Annals of the International Communication Association, 36(1), 323–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2013.11679138

34.

Griffin

R. J.

Neuwirth

Dunwoody

Giese

(2004). Information sufficiency and risk communication. Media Psychology, 6(1), 23–61. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532785xmep0601_2

35.

Grunig

(1997). A situational theory of publics: Conceptual history, recent challenges, and new research. In Moss

MacManus

Verčič

(Eds.), Public relations research: An international perspective. (pp. 3–46). International Thomson Business Press.

36.

Guzman

A. L.

Lewis

S. C.

(2020). Artificial intelligence and communication: A human–machine communication research agenda. New Media & Society, 22(1), 70–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444819858691

37.

Horne

(2001). Sociological perspectives on the emergence of norms. In Hechter

Opp

K.-D.

(Eds.), Social norms (pp. 3–34). Russell Sage Foundation.

38.

Johnson

J. D.

Meischke

(1993). A comprehensive model of cancer-related information seeking applied to magazines. Human Communication Research, 19(3), 343–367. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1993.tb00305.x

39.

Kahlor

L. A.

(2007). An augmented risk information seeking model: The case of global warming. Media Psychology, 10(3), 414–435. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213260701532971

40.

Kahlor

L. A.

(2010). PRISM: A planned risk information seeking model. Health Communication, 25(4), 345–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410231003775172

41.

Keltner

Gruenfeld

D. H.

Anderson

(2003). Power, approach, and inhibition. Psychological Review, 110(2), 265.

42.

Keltner

van Kleef

G. A.

Chen

Kraus

M. W.

(2008). A reciprocal influence model of social power: Emerging principles and lines of inquiry. In Olson

J. M.

Zanna

M. P.

(Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 40, pp. 151–192). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(07)00003-2

43.

Kiesler

D. J.

(1983). The 1982 interpersonal circle: A taxonomy for complementarity in human transactions. Psychological Review, 90, 185–214. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.90.3.185

44.

Kim

J.-N.

Grunig

J. E.

(2011). Problem solving and communicative action: A situational theory of problem solving. Journal of Communication, 61(1), 120–149. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2010.01529.x

45.

Kosicki

G. M.

McLeod

J. M.

(1990). Learning from political news: Effects of media images and information-processing strategies. In Kraus

(Ed.), Mass communication and political information processing (pp. 69–83). Erlbaum.

46.

Kruglanski

A. W.

(1990). Motivations for judging and knowing: Implications for causal attribution. In Sorrentino

R. M.

Higgins

E. T.

(Eds.). Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 333–368). The Guilford Press.

47.

La Barbera

Ajzen

. (2021). Moderating role of perceived behavioral control in the theory of planned behavior: A preregistered study. Journal of Theoretical Social Psychology, 5(1), 35–45. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts5.83

48.

Liao

Y. J.

Feng

Zhang

(2023). Understanding the Influence discrepancy between human and artificial agent in advice interactions: The role of stereotypical perception of agency. Communication Research, 50(5), 633–664. https://doi.org/10.1177/00936502221138427

49.

Liu

Yang

J. Z.

Feeley

T. H.

(2022). Reduced Risk Information Seeking Model (RISK): A meta-analysis. Science Communication, 44(6), 787–813. https://doi.org/10.1177/10755470221144453

50.

Logg

J. M.

Minson

J. A.

Moore

D. A.

(2019). Algorithm appreciation: People prefer algorithmic to human judgment. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 151, 90–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2018.12.005

51.

Lund

B. D.

Wang

(2023). Chatting about ChatGPT: How may AI and GPT impact academia and libraries? Library Hi Tech News, 40(3), 26–29. https://doi.org/10.1108/LHTN-01-2023-0009

52.

Mayer

R. C.

Davis

J. H.

Schoorman

F. D.

(1995). An integrative model of organizational trust. Academy of Management Review, 20(3), 709–734. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1995.9508080335

53.

McCroskey

J. C.

Jenson

T. A.

(1975). Image of mass media news sources. Journal of Broadcasting, 19(2), 169–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838157509363777

54.

Moyer

Griffin

R. J.

Pokrywczynski

(2019). Take me out to the Facebook page. Journal of Digital & Social Media Marketing, 6(4), 357–370.

55.

Muller

Judd

C. M.

Yzerbyt

V. Y.

(2005). When moderation is mediated and mediation is moderated. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(6), 852–863.

56.

Myers

D. G.

(1978). Polarizing effects of social comparison. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14(6), 554–563. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(78)90049-5

57.

Myers

D. G.

Lamm

(1976). The group polarization phenomenon. Psychological Bulletin, 83, 602–627. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.83.4.602

58.

Nass

Steuer

Tauber

E. R.

(1994). Computers are social actors. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 72–78). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/191666.191703

59.

Pew Research Center. (2022). Ai and human enhancement: Americans’ openness is tempered by a range of concerns. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2022/03/17/how-americans-think-about-artificial-intelligence/

60.

Podsakoff

P. M.

MacKenzie

S. B.

Lee

J.-Y.

Podsakoff

N. P.

(2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903.

61.

Prahl

Swol

L. V.

(2017). Understanding algorithm aversion: When is advice from automation discounted? Journal of Forecasting, 36(6), 691–702. https://doi.org/10.1002/for.2464

62.

Ramirez

Jr. Walther

J. B.

Burgoon

J. K.

Sunnafrank

(2002). Information-seeking strategies, uncertainty, and computer-mediated communication. Human Communication Research, 28(2), 213–228. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2002.tb00804.x

63.

Ridgeway

C. L.

(2001). Social status and group structure. In Hogg

M. A.

Tindale

R. S.

(Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Group processes (pp. 352–375). Blackwell.

64.

Ruppel

E. K.

Rains

S. A.

(2012). Information sources and the health information-seeking process: An application and extension of channel complementarity theory. Communication Monographs, 79(3), 385–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2012.697627

65.

Spence

P. R.

Westerman

Edwards

(2014). Welcoming our robot overlords: Initial expectations about interaction with a robot. Communication Research Reports, 31(3), 272–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2014.924337

66.

Sundar

S. S.

(2008). The MAIN model: A heuristic approach to understanding technology effects on credibility. In Metzger

M. J.

Flanagin

A. J.

(Eds.), Digital media, youth, and credibility (pp. 73–100). The MIT Press.

67.

Sundar

S. S.

(2020). Rise of machine agency: A framework for studying the psychology of human–AI interaction (HAII). Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 25(1), 74–88. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmz026

68.

Sundar

S. S.

Nass

C. I.

(2000). Source orientation in human-computer interaction: Programmer, networker, or independent social actor. Communication Research, 27(6), 683–703. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365000027006001

69.

Terry

D. J.

Hogg

M. A.

(1996). Group norms and the attitude-behavior relationship: A role for group identification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(8), 776–793. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167296228002

70.

Tiedens

L. Z.

Fragale

A. R.

(2003). Power moves: Complementarity in dominant and submissive nonverbal behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(3), 558–568. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.3.558

71.

Yang

Z. J.

(2012). Too scared or too capable? Why do college students stay away from the H1N1 vaccine? Risk Analysis, 32(10), 1703–1716. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2012.01799.x

72.

Yang

Z. J.

Aloe

A. M.

Feeley

T. H.

(2014). Risk information seeking and processing model: A meta-analysis. Journal of Communication, 64(1), 20–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12071

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

4.83 MB