Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Although the multitiered system of supports for behavior (MTSS-B) framework has emerged as a proactive, systemic framework to promote students’ social, emotional, and academic outcomes, its implementation may not benefit all youth equitably without explicit considerations related to culturally and racially equitable practice. In this article, we provide guidance to school and district leaders about ways in which the behavioral framework can benefit all youth by centering those with marginalized identities. This includes recommending explicit consideration of the ways in which whiteness permeates behavioral theory and educational systems. Leaders will be guided to consider how decentering whiteness allows for building more culturally responsive systems and practices to support the needs of youth in self-contained programming. We provide school leaders with suggestions to support the design and delivery of MTSS-B that is culturally responsive and advances equitable outcomes in self-contained settings.

Keywords

culturally responsive teaching behavioral supports self-contained classrooms

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Ahram

Fergus

Noguera

(2011). Addressing racial/ethnic disproportionality in special education: Case studies of suburban school districts. Teachers College Record, 113(10), 2233–2266. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811111301004

Bal

(2018). Culturally responsive positive behavioral interventions and supports: A process–oriented framework for systemic transformation. Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies, 40(2), 144–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2017.1417579

Bal

Betters-Bubon

Fish

R. E.

(2019). A multilevel analysis of statewide disproportionality in exclusionary discipline and the identification of emotional disturbance. Education and Urban Society, 51(2), 247–268. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124517716260

Bal

Sullivan

A. L.

Harper

(2014). A situated analysis of special education disproportionality for systemic transformation in an urban school district. Remedial and Special Education, 35(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932513507754

Banks

Obiakor

F. E.

(2015). Culturally responsive positive behavior supports: Considerations for practice. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 3(2), 83–90. https://doi.org/10.11114/jets.v3i2.636

Barrio

B. L.

Ferguson

S. L.

Hovey

K. A.

Boedeker

Kluttz-Drye

(2023). Voices beyond the numbers: A systematic review of qualitative studies of disproportionality in special education. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 67(1), 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2022.2101422

Baum

W. M.

(2017). Understanding behaviorism: Behavior, culture, and evolution (3rd ed.). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119143673

Becker

Vignoles

V. L.

Owe

Brown

Smith

P. B.

Easterbrook

Herman

de Sauvage

Bourguignon

Torres

Camino

Lemos

F. C. S.

Ferreira

M. C.

Koller

S. H.

González

Carrasco

Cadena

M. P.

Lay

Wang

. . . Yamakoğlu

(2012). Culture and the distinctiveness motive: Constructing identity in individualistic and collectivistic contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(4), 833–855. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026853

Betters-Bubon

Kortemeier

Smith-Durkin

(2019). Culturally responsive MTSS: Advocating for equity for every student. In Goodman-Scott

Betters-Bubon

Donohue

(Eds.), The school counselor’s guide to multi-tiered systems of support (pp. 298–329). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315144467-11

10.

Bettini

E. A.

Cumming

M. M.

Merrill

K. L.

Brunsting

N. C.

Liaupsin

C. J.

(2017). Working conditions in self-contained settings for students with emotional disturbance. The Journal of Special Education, 51(2), 83–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466916674195

11.

Bondy

Ross

D. D.

Gallingane

Hambacher

(2007). Creating environments of success and resilience: Culturally responsive classroom management and more. Urban Education, 42(4), 326–348. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085907303406

12.

Brown

Maggin

D. M.

Talbott

(2022). Advancing positive outcomes for students with disabilities with culturally adapted behavioral strategies. In Farmer

T. W.

Talbott

McMaster

Lee

Aceves

T. C.

(Eds.), Handbook of special education research, Volume I: Theory, methods, and developmental processes (pp. 328–341). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003156857-27

13.

Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

14.

Bryan

(2018). Shaking the bad boys: Troubling the criminalization of black boys’ childhood play, hegemonic white masculinity and femininity, and the school playground-to-prison pipeline. Race Ethnicity and Education, 23(5), 673–692. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2018.1512483

15.

Capper

C. A.

Young

M. D.

(2015). The equity audit as the core of leading increasingly diverse schools and districts. In Theoharis

Scanlan

(Eds.), Leadership for increasingly diverse schools (pp. 212–223). Routledge.

16.

Carr

E. G.

Dunlap

Horner

R. H.

Koegel

R. L.

Turnbull

A. P.

Sailor

Anderson

J. L.

Albin

R. W.

Koegel

L. Y.

Fox

(2002). Positive behavior support: Evolution of an applied science. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 4(1), 4–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/109830070200400102

17.

Carter

E. R.

Onyeador

I. N.

Lewis

N. A.

Jr. (2020). Developing & delivering effective anti-bias training: Challenges & recommendations. Behavioral Science & Policy, 6(1), 57–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/237946152000600106

18.

Chafouleas

S. M.

(2011). Direct Behavior Rating: A review of the issues and research in its development. Education and Treatment of Children, 34(4), 575–591. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2011.0034

19.

Chow

J. C.

Morse

Zhao

Kingsbery

Murray

Soni

(2023). A systematic review of characteristics of students with emotional disturbance in special education research. Remedial and Special Education, 44(5), 409–422. https://doi.org/10.1177/07419325221125890

20.

Clark

E. B.

(2021). Deserving to belong: Complex narratives of working and learning in self-contained spaces [Doctoral dissertation]. CUNY Academic Works. https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/4610

21.

Crenshaw

Gotanda

Peller

Thomas

(Eds.). (1995). Critical race theory: The key writings that formed the movement. The New Press.

22.

Cruz

R. A.

Firestone

A. R.

Love

(2024). Beyond a seat at the table: Imagining educational equity through critical inclusion. Educational Review, 76(1), 69–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2023.2173726

23.

Cruz

R. A.

Rodl

J. E.

(2018). An integrative synthesis of literature on disproportionality in special education. The Journal of Special Education, 52(1), 50–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466918758707

24.

Dodman

S. L.

DeMulder

E. K.

View

J. L.

Stribling

S. M.

Brusseau

(2023). “I knew it was a problem before, but did I really?”: Engaging teachers in data use for equity. Journal of Educational Change, 24(4), 995–1023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-022-09477-z

25.

Fallon

L. M.

Ali

Daniels

Stobbe

Wang

Bagepalli

Anderson

La Salle-Finley

Green

J. G.

Ervin

(2025). Promoting equity-centered Tier 1 supports in an MTSS framework. Manuscript under review.

26.

Fallon

L. M.

Cathcart

S. C.

Johnson

A. H.

Minami

O’Keeffe

B. V.

DeFouw

E. R.

Sugai

(2023). A teacher self-assessment of culturally relevant practice to inform educator professional development decisions in MTSS contexts. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 48(2), 100–112. https://doi.org/10.1177/15345084221111338

27.

Fallon

L. M.

DeFouw

E. R.

Cathcart

S. C.

Berkman

T. S.

O’Keeffe

B. V.

Sugai

(2022). Supports to improve academic outcomes with racially and ethnically minoritized youth: A review of research. Remedial and Special Education, 43(4), 237–254. https://doi.org/10.1177/07419325211046760

28.

Fallon

L. M.

Feinberg

A. B.

(2016). Implementing a tier 2 behavioral intervention in a therapeutic alternative high school program. Preventing School Failure, 61, 189–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2016.1254083

29.

Fallon

L. M.

Feinberg

A. B.

(2020). Fading students from individual break plans to small group breaks: A preliminary study of a Tier 2 intervention. International Journal of Positive Behavioural Support, 10(1), 32–43. https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bild/ijpbs/2020/00000010/00000001/art00004

30.

Fallon

L. M.

Robinson-Link

Womack

T. A.

Alba

L. A.

Sunda

Ballard

Veiga

Johnson

A. H.

(2023). Learning to decenter whiteness in schools through teacher professional development: A systematic review. School Psychology Review, 53(4), 400–416. https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2023.2194236

31.

Fallon

L. M.

Veiga

Sugai

(2021). Strengthening MTSS for behavior (MTSS-B) to promote racial equity. School Psychology Review, 52(5), 518–533. https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2021.1972333

32.

Fefer

DeMagistris

Shuttleton

(2016). Assessing adolescent praise and reward preferences for academic behavior. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 2(2), 153–162. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000072

33.

Gay

(2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. Teachers College Press.

34.

Goldstein

(1957). Social aspects of mental deficiency [Doctoral Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/social-aspects-mental-deficiency/docview/301914988/se-2?accountid=28932

35.

Green

M. J.

Sonn

C. C.

Matsebula

(2007). Reviewing whiteness: Theory, research, and possibilities. South African Journal of Psychology, 37(3), 389–419. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC98453. https://doi.org/10.1177/008124630703700301

36.

Gregory

Skiba

R. J.

Mediratta

(2017). Eliminating disparities in school discipline: A framework for intervention. Review of Research in Education, 41(1), 253–278. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X17690499

37.

Heidelburg

Rutherford

Parks

T. W.

(2022). A preliminary analysis assessing SWPBIS implementation fidelity in relation to disciplinary outcomes of black students in urban schools. The Urban Review, 54(1), 138–154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-021-00609-y

38.

Henderson

J. L.

(2017). Effect of degree of RTI/MTSS implementation on reading and mathematics achievement growth in a metropolitan school district [Doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas].

39.

Henderson

T. Y.

Jefferson-Jones

(2019). #LivingWhileBlack: Blackness as nuisance. American University Law Review, 69(3), 863–914. https://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/aulr/vol69/iss3/3/

40.

Hwang

Kisida

(2022). Spread too thin: The effect of specialization on teaching effectiveness. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 44(4), 593–607. https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737221084312

41.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of of 2004 Pub. L. 108–466. Federal register, Vol. 70, No. 118.

42.

Jagers

R. J.

Rivas-Drake

Williams

(2019). Transformative social and emotional learning (SEL): Toward SEL in service of educational equity and excellence. Educational Psychologist, 54(3), 162–184. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2019.1623032

43.

Jones

S. C.

Neblett

E. W.

(2017). Future directions in research on racism-related stress and racial-ethnic protective factors for Black youth. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 46(5), 754–766. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1146991

44.

Katsiyannis

Zhang

Ettekal

Chang

W. H.

Bigger

Hullett

(2025). Minority representation in special education: 5-year trends from 2016–2020. Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 9(1), 23–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41252-023-00387-6

45.

Kauffman

J. M.

Wong

K. L.

(1991). Effective teachers of students with behavioral disorders: Are generic teaching skills enough? Behavioral Disorders, 16(3), 225–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874299101600305

46.

Mawene

Roberts

Hong

J. J.

(2021). A systematic review of boundary-crossing partnerships in designing equity-oriented special education services for culturally and linguistically diverse students with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 42(6), 412–425. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932520983474

47.

Ksinan

A. J.

Vazsonyi

A. T.

Jiskrova

G. K.

Peugh

J. L.

(2019). National ethnic and racial disparities in disciplinary practices: A contextual analysis in American secondary schools. Journal of School Psychology, 74, 106–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2019.05.003

48.

Lambert

M. C.

Katsiyannis

Epstein

M. H.

Cullinan

(2021). An initial study of the emotional and behavioral characteristics of Black students school identified as emotionally disturbed. Behavioral Disorders, 47(2), 108–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/01987429211038022

49.

Lane

K. L.

(2007). Identifying and supporting students at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders within multi-level models: Data driven approaches to conducting secondary interventions with an academic emphasis. Education and Treatment of Children, 30(4), 135–164. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2007.0026

50.

Lane

K. L.

Wehby

J. H.

Little

M. A.

Cooley

(2005). Students educated in self-contained classrooms and self-contained schools: Part II—How do they progress over time? Behavioral Disorders, 30(4), 363–374. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874290503000408

51.

Larson

K. E.

Pas

E. T.

Bradshaw

C. P.

Rosenberg

M. S.

Day-Vines

N. L.

(2018). Examining how proactive management and culturally responsive teaching relate to student behavior: Implications for measurement and practice. School Psychology Review, 47(2), 153–166. https://doi.org/10.17105/spr-2017-0070.v47-2

52.

Lau v. Nichols, 414 U.S. 563 (1974).

53.

Leath

Mathews

Harrison

Chavous

(2019). Racial identity, racial discrimination, and classroom engagement outcomes among Black girls and boys in predominantly Black and predominantly white school districts. American Educational Research Journal, 56(4), 1318–1352. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831218816955

54.

Lesch

(2012). Inclusion: What came before. Occasional Paper Series, 28, 2. https://doi.org/10.58295/2375-3668.1058

55.

Malone

C. M.

Wycoff

Turner

E. A.

(2022). Applying a MTSS framework to address racism and promote mental health for racial/ethnic minoritized youth. Psychology in the Schools, 59(12), 2438–2452. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22606

56.

McCabe

K. M.

Ruppar

Kurth

J. A.

McQueston

J. A.

Johnston

Toews

S. G.

(2020). Cracks in the continuum: A critical analysis of least restrictive environment for students with significant support needs. Teachers College Record, 122(5), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146812012200511

57.

McDaniel

S. C.

Jolivette

Ennis

R. P.

(2014). Barriers and facilitators to integrating SWPBIS in alternative education settings with existing behavior management systems. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 24(4), 247–256. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044207312465471

58.

McIntosh

Gion

Bastable

(2018). Do schools implementing SWPBIS have decreased racial and ethnic disproportionality in school discipline? OSEP National Technical Assistance Center on PBIS. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED591154

59.

McIntosh

Girvan

E. J.

Fairbanks Falcon

McDaniel

S. C.

Smolkowski

Bastable

Santiago-Rosario

M. R.

Izzard

Austin

S. C.

Nese

R. N. T.

Baldy

T. S.

(2021). Equity-focused PBIS approach reduces racial inequities in school discipline: A randomized controlled trial. School Psychology, 36(6), 433–444. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000466

60.

Meadows

N. B.

Neel

R. S.

Scott

C. M.

Parker

(1994). Academic performance, social competence, and mainstream accommodations: A look at mainstreamed and nonmainstreamed students with serious behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 19, 170–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874299401900303

61.

Morgan

P. L.

Farkas

(2016). Evidence and implications of racial and ethnic disparities in emotional and behavioral disorders identification and treatment. Behavioral Disorders, 41(2), 122–131. https://doi.org/10.17988/0198-7429-41.2.122

62.

Morris

E. K.

(2003). BF Skinner: A behavior analyst in educational psychology. In Zimmerman

B. J.

Schunk

D. H.

(Eds.), Educational Psychology: A century of contributions (pp. 229–250). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315734255-12

63.

Neville

H. A.

Worthington

R. L.

Spanierman

L. B.

(2001). Race, power, and multicultural counseling psychology: Understanding white privilege and color-blind racial attitudes. In Ponterotto

J. G.

Casas

J. M.

Suzuki

L. A.

Alexander

C. M.

(Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (2nd ed., pp. 257–288). Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452231662.n17

64.

Pasick

R. J.

Burke

N. J.

Barker

J. C.

Joseph

Bird

J. A.

Otero-Sabogal

Tuason

Stewart

S. L.

Rakowski

Clark

M. A.

Washington

P. K.

Guerra

(2009). Behavioral theory in a diverse society: Like a compass on Mars. Health Education & Behavior, 36(5), 11S–35S. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198109338917

65.

Ponder

L. D.

(2008). Elementary school structures: The effects of self-contained and departmentalized classrooms on third and fourth grade student achievement [Doctoral dissertation, Stephen F. Austin State University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/elementary-school-structures-effects-self/docview/304841201/se-2?accountid=28932

66.

Pour-Khorshid

(2018). Cultivating sacred spaces: A racial affinity group approach to support critical educators of color. Teaching Education, 29(4), 318–329. https://doi.org/10.1080/10476210.2018.1512092

67.

Powell

Cantrell

S. C.

Malo-Juvera

Correll

(2016). Operationalizing culturally responsive instruction: Preliminary findings of CRIOP research. Teachers College Record, 118(1), 1–46. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1086276. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811611800107

68.

Schooley

R. C.

Lee

D. L.

Spanierman

L. B.

(2019). Measuring Whiteness: A systematic review of instruments and call to action. The Counseling Psychologist, 47(4), 530–565. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000019883261

69.

Shogren

K. A.

Wehmeyer

M. L.

Lane

K. L.

(2016). Embedding interventions to promote self-determination within multitiered systems of supports. Exceptionality, 24(4), 213–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/09362835.2015.1064421

70.

Simonsen

Sugai

(2013). PBIS in alternative education settings: Positive support for youth with high-risk behavior. Education and Treatment of Children, 36(3), 3–14.

71.

Singer

J. D.

Butler

J. A.

Palfrey

J. S.

Walker

D. K.

(1986). Characteristics of special education placements: Findings from probability samples in five metropolitan school districts. The Journal of Special Education, 20, 319–337. https://doi.org/10.1177/002246698602000306

72.

Siuty

M. B.

(2019). Teacher preparation as interruption or disruption? Understanding identity (re) constitution for critical inclusion. Teaching and Teacher Education, 81(1), 38–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.02.008

73.

Skiba

R. J.

Michael

R. S.

Nardo

A. C.

Peterson

R. L.

(2002). The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment. The Urban Review, 34(4), 317–342. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1021320817372

74.

Skrla

Scheurich

J. J.

Garcia

Nolly

(2004). Equity audits: A practical leadership tool for developing equitable and excellent schools. Educational Administration Quarterly, 40(1), 133–161. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X03259148

75.

Small

(2020). The hidden curriculum in public schools and its disadvantage to minority students. International Forum of Teaching and Studies, 16(1), 16–23. https://americanscholarspress.us/journals/IFST/pdf/IFOTS-1-2020/IFOTS-V16n1-art2-2020.pdf

76.

Sue

D. W.

Bingham

Porche-Burke

Vasquez

M. J. T.

(1999). The diversification of psychology: A multicultural revolution. American Psychologist, 54, 1061–1069. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.12.1061

77.

Sugai

Horner

R. H.

(2020). Sustaining and scaling positive behavioral interventions and supports: Implementation drivers, outcomes, and considerations. Exceptional Children, 86(2), 120–136. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402919855331

78.

Sullivan

A. L.

Bal

(2013). Disproportionality in special education: Effects of individual and school variables on disability risk. Exceptional Children, 79(4), 475–494. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291307900406

79.

Taylor

J. C.

Hanley

Deger

Hunter

W. C.

(2023). Promoting anti-racism practices and the cycle of critical consciousness within positive behavior interventions and supports frameworks. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 55(5), 314–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/00400599221120242

80.

Thorius

K. A. K.

Stephenson

(2012). Racial and ethnic disproportionality in special education. In Noltemeyer

A. M.

Lynn

McLoughlin

C. S.

(Eds.), Disproportionality in education and special education: A guide to creating more equitable learning environments (pp. 25–44). Charles C. Thomas Publisher.

81.

Toms

O. M.

Campbell-Whatley

Stuart

Schultz

(2018). The effects of check-in check-out on the academic planning and behavior of African American males. Journal for Multicultural Education, 12(3), 278–293. https://doi.org/10.1108/JME-03-2017-0016

82.

U.S. Department of Education, ED Facts Data Warehouse. (2021). IDEA Part B child count and educational environments collection 2019-20. https://www2.ed.gov/programs/osepidea/618-data/state-level-data-files/part-b-data/child-count-and-educational-environments/bchildcountandedenvironments2019-20.csv

83.

van Daalen

K. R.

Davey

Norman

Ford

J. A

. (2021). Health equity audits: A systematic review of the effectiveness. BMJ Open, 11(11), e053392. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-053392

84.

Waitoller

F. R.

Artiles

A. J.

Cheney

D. A.

(2010). The miner’s canary: A review of overrepresentation research and explanations. Journal of Special Education, 44(1), 29–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466908329226

85.

Wells

A. S.

Serna

(1996). The politics of culture: Understanding local political resistance to detracking in racially mixed schools. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), 93–118. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.66.1.274848214743t373

86.

Wolf

M. M.

(1978). Social validity: The case for subjective measurement or how applied behavior analysis is finding its heart 1. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11(2), 203–214. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1978.11-203

87.

Wyss

Preston

(2022). Is there a benefit to upper elementary departmentalization? A district level analysis. Impacting Education: Journal on Transforming Professional Practice, 7(4), 16–25. https://doi.org/10.5195/ie.2022.218

88.

Yosso

T. J.

(2002). Toward a critical race curriculum. Equity & Excellence in Education, 35(2), 93–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/713845283

Advancing Racial Equity With Multitiered Systems of Supports for Behavior in Self-Contained Classrooms

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References