Reliability Generalization

Abstract

The assessment of positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) by means of the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule has received a remarkable popularity in the social sciences. Using a meta-analytic tool—namely, reliability generalization (RG)—population reliability scores of both scales have been investigated on the basis of a random effects model in 147 studies. Correcting for measurement errors, the results demonstrate moderate to high internal consistency coefficients and variations of the PA and NA reliability scores with regard to time frame instructions, language of items, and sample characteristics. The percentage of PA and NA true score variance differs in subpopulations up to 11%. RG analysis of test–retest coefficients illustrates state-like fluctuations and trait-like stability of both scales. Calculations of the fail-safe number point at the robustness of the results. Applications of RG coefficients compared to single-study coefficients highlight the relevance of population coefficients for research and assessment situations.

Keywords

reliability generalization PANAS positive affect negative affect random effects model fail-safe number differential reliability

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

American Educational Research Association, American Psychiatric Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (1999). Standards for educational and psychological testing. Washington, DC: Authors.

*Allanson

(2007). Abortion decision and ambivalence: Insights via an abortion decision balance sheet. Clinical Psychologist, 11, 50-60.

*Asci

F. H.

Demirhan

Koca

Dinc

S. C.

(2006). Precompetitive anxiety and affective state of climbers in indoor climbing competition. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 102, 395-404.

*Ayyash-Abdo

Alamuddin

(2007). Predictors of subjective well-being among college youth in Lebanon. Journal of Social Psychology, 147, 265-284.

*Beck

J. G.

Novy

D. M.

Diefenbach

G. J.

Stanley

M. A.

Averill

P. M.

Swann

A. C.

(2003). Differentiating anxiety and depression in older adults with generalized anxiety disorder. Psychological Assessment, 15, 184-192.

*Benetti

Kambouropoulos

(2006). Affect-regulated indirect effects of trait anxiety and trait resilience on self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 341-352.

*Boon

M. T.

Peeters

F. P.

(1999). Dimensions of affectivity in depression and anxiety. Tijdschrift voor Psychiatrie, 41, 109-113.

*Bouffard

Crocker

P. R.

(1992). Coping by individuals with physical disabilities with perceived challenge in physical activity: Are people consistent? Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 63, 410-417.

*Burger

J. M.

Caldwell

D. F.

(2000). Personality, social activities, job-search behavior and interview success: Distinguishing between PANAS trait positive affect and NEO extraversion. Motivation and Emotion, 24(1), 51-62.

10.

*Caldwell

T. M.

Rodgers

Jorm

A. F.

Christensen

Jacomb

P. A.

Korten

A. E.

. (2002). Patterns of association between alcohol consumption and symptoms of depression and anxiety in young adults. Addiction, 97, 583-594.

11.

Caruso

J. C.

(2000). Reliability generalization of the NEO personality scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 60, 236-254.

12.

*Cellar

D. F.

Degrendel

Sidle

Lavine

(1996). Effects of goal type on performance, task interest, and affect over time. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 804-824.

13.

Charter

R. A.

(1999). Sample size requirements for precise estimates of reliability, generalizability, and validity coefficients. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 21, 559-566.

14.

*Chi

S. E.

Park

C. B.

Lim

S. L.

Park

E. H.

Lee

Y. H.

Lee

K. H.

. (2005). EEG and personality dimensions: A consideration based on the brain oscillatory systems. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 669-681.

15.

*Chronis

A. M.

Pelham

W. E.

Jr. Gnagy

E. M.

Roberts

J. E.

Aronoff

H. R.

(2003). The impact of late-afternoon stimulant dosing for children with ADHD on parent and parent-child domains. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 118-126.

16.

*Ciarrochi

Heaven

P. C. L.

(2007). Longitudinal examination of the impact of Eysenck’s psychoticism dimension on emotional well-being in teenagers. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 597-608.

17.

Clark

L. A.

Watson

(1991). Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: Psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 316-336.

18.

*Cohn

A. M.

Zeichner

Seibert

L. A.

(2008). Labile affect as a risk factor for aggressive behavior in men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 9(1), 29-39.

19.

*Cole

B. S.

Hopkins

C. M.

Tisak

Steel

J. L.

Carr

B. I.

(2008). Assessing spiritual growth and spiritual decline following a diagnosis of cancer: Reliability and validity of the spiritual transformation scale. Psychooncology, 17(2), 112-121.

20.

Cooper

Hedges

L. V.

(1994). Research synthesis as a scientific enterprise. In Cooper

Hedges

L. V.

(Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

21.

*Crawford

J. R.

Henry

J. D.

(2003). The Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS): Normative data and latent structure in a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42, 111-131.

22.

*Crawford

J. R.

Henry

J. D.

(2004). The positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS): Construct validity, measurement properties and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 245-265.

23.

*Crocker

P. R. E.

(1997). A confirmatory factor analysis of the Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) with a youth sport sample. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 19(1), 91-97.

24.

*Croghan

I. T.

Bronars

Patten

C. A.

Schroeder

D. R.

Nirelli

L. M.

Thomas

J. L.

. (2006). Is smoking related to body image satisfaction, stress, and self-esteem in young adults? American Journal of Health Behavior, 30, 322-333.

25.

*Crook

Beaver

B. R.

Bell

(1998). Anxiety and depression in children: A preliminary examination of the utility of the PANAS-C. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 20, 333-350.

26.

*Dierk

J. M.

Conradt

Rauh

Schlumberger

Hebebrand

Rief

(2006). What determines well-being in obesity? Associations with BMI, social skills, and social support. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 60, 219-227.

27.

*Drent

Wirnsberger

R. M.

Breteler

M. H.

Kock

L. M.

de Vries

Wouters

E. F.

(1998). Quality of life and depressive symptoms in patients suffering from sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis, Vasculitis, and Diffuse Lung Diseases, 15(1), 59-66.

28.

*Duffy

M. E.

Stewart-Knox

B. J.

McConville

Bradbury

O’Connor

Helander

. (2006). The relationship between whole-blood serotonin and subjective mood in apparently healthy postmenopausal women. Biological Psychology, 73, 165-168.

29.

*Egloff

(1998). The independence of positive and negative affect depends on the affect measure. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 1101-1109.

30.

*Egloff

Schmukle

S. C.

Burns

L. R.

Kohlmann

C. W.

Hock

(2003). Facets of dynamic positive affect: differentiating joy, interest, and activation in the positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 528-540.

31.

*Engelen

De Peuter

Victoir

Van Diest

Van Den Bergh

(2006). Further validation of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and comparison of two Dutch versions. Gedrag & Gezondheid: Tijdschrift voor Psychologie en Gezondheid, 34(2), 89-102.

32.

*Fullana

M. A.

Caseras

Torrubia

(2003). Psychometric properties of the Personal State Questionnaire in a Catalan sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 605-611.

33.

*Galinha

I. C.

Pais-Ribeiro

J. L.

(2005). Contributions for the study of the Portuguese version of Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS): II—Psychometric study. Analise Psicologica, 23, 219-227.

34.

*Gaudreau

Sanchez

Blondin

J.-P.

(2006). Positive and negative affective states in a performance-related setting: Testing the factorial structure of the PANAS Across two samples of French-Canadian participants. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 22, 240-249.

35.

*Gencoz

(2000). Positive and Negative Affect Schedule: A study of validity and reliability. Turk Psikoloji Dergisi, 15(46), 19-28.

36.

*Giacobbi

P. R.

Jr. Tuccitto

D. E.

Frye

(2007). Exercise, affect, and university students’ appraisals of academic events prior to the final examination period. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8, 261-274.

37.

*Glaser

Kiecolt-Glaser

J. K.

Marucha

P. T.

MacCallum

R. C.

Laskowski

B. F.

Malarkey

W. B.

(1999). Stress-related changes in proinflammatory cytokine production in wounds. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 450-456.

38.

*Gramstad

Iversen

Engelsen

B. A.

(2001). The impact of affectivity dispositions, self-efficacy and locus of control on psychosocial adjustment in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy Research, 46(1), 53-61.

39.

Green

D. P.

Goldman

S. L.

Salovey

(1993). Measurement error masks bipolarity in affect ratings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 1029-1041.

40.

*Greenlees

I. A.

Nunn

R. L.

Graydon

J. K.

Maynard

I. W.

(1999). The relationship between collective efficacy and precompetitive affect in rugby players: Testing Bandura’s model of collective efficacy. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 89, 431-440.

41.

*Gross

J. J.

Sutton

S. K.

Ketelaar

(1998). Relations between affect and personality: Support for the affect-level and affective reactivity views. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 279-288.

42.

*Hansdottir

Malcarne

V. L.

Furst

D. E.

Weisman

M. H.

Clements

P. J.

(2004). Relationships of positive and negative affect to coping and functional outcomes in systemic sclerosis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28, 593-610.

43.

*Hill

R. D.

van Boxtel

M. P.

Ponds

Houx

P. J.

Jolles

(2005). Positive affect and its relationship to free recall memory performance in a sample of older Dutch adults from the Maastricht Aging Study. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20, 429-435.

44.

*Hilleras

P. K.

Jorm

A. F.

Herlitz

Winblad

(1998). Negative and positive affect among the very old: A survey on a sample age 90 years or older. Research on Aging, 20, 593-610.

45.

Howell

R. T.

Shields

A. L.

(2008). The file drawer problem in reliability generalization: A strategy to compute a fail-safe N with reliability coefficients. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 68, 120-128.

46.

*Huebner

E. S.

Dew

(1995). Preliminary validation of the positive and negative affect schedule with adolescents. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 13, 286-293.

47.

Hunter

J. E.

Schmidt

F. L.

(2004). Methods of meta-analysis. London: SAGE.

48.

*Ito

Kodama

(2007). Sense of authenticity, affectivity, and cultural construal of the self among Japanese university students. Psychological Reports, 100(1), 83-86.

49.

*Jacques

H. A.

Mash

E. J.

(2004). A test of the tripartite model of anxiety and depression in elementary and high school boys and girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32(1), 13-25.

50.

Joiner

T. E.

Jr. Blalock

J. A.

(1995). Gender differences in depression: The role of anxiety and generalized negative affect. Sex Roles, 33(1-2), 91-108.

51.

*Joiner

T. E.

Jr. Sandin

Chorot

Lostao

Marquina

(1997). Development and factor analytic validation of the SPANAS among women in Spain: (More) cross-cultural convergence in the structure of mood. Journal of Personality Assessment, 68, 600-615.

52.

*Judge

T. A.

Bretz

R. D.

(1993). Report on an alternative measure of affective disposition. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53, 1095-1104.

53.

*Karatzias

Chouliara

Power

Swanson

(2006). Predicting general well-being from self-esteem and affectivity: An exploratory study with Scottish adolescents. Quality of Life Research, 15, 1143-1151.

54.

*Kassel

J. D.

Evatt

D. P.

Greenstein

J. E.

Wardle

M. C.

Yates

M. C.

Veilleux

J. C.

(2007). The acute effects of nicotine on positive and negative affect in adolescent smokers. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 543-553.

55.

*Kercher

(1992). Assessing subjective well-being in the old-old: The PANAS as a measure of orthogonal dimensions of positive and negative affect. Research on Aging, 14, 131-168.

56.

*Kiernan

Laurent

Joiner

T. E.

Jr. Catanzaro

S. J.

MacLachlan

(2001). Cross-cultural examination of the tripartite model with children: Data from the Barretstown studies. Journal of Personality Assessment, 77, 359-379.

57.

Killgore

W. D. S.

(2000). Evidence for a third factor on the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule in a college student sample. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 90, 147-152.

58.

*Kim

Seidlitz

Evinger

J. S.

Duberstein

P. R.

(2004). Spirituality and affect: A function of changes in religious affiliation. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 861-870.

59.

*Kring

A. M.

Persons

J. B.

Thomas

(2007). Changes in affect during treatment for depression and anxiety. Behavior Research and Therapy, 45(8), 1753-1764.

60.

*Krohne

H. W.

Egloff

Kohlmann

C.-W.

Tausch

(1996). Investigations with a German version of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). Diagnostica, 42, 139-156.

61.

*Lansdowne

A. T. G.

Provost

S. C.

(1998). Vitamin D-sub-3 enhances mood in healthy subjects during winter. Psychopharmacology, 135, 319-323.

62.

Larsen

R. J.

Diener

(1992). Promises and problems with the zircurnplex model of emotion. In Clark

M. S.

(Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology: Emotion (pp. 25-52). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.

63.

*Laurent

Catanzaro

S. J.

Joiner

T. E.

Jr. Rudolph

K. D.

Potter

K. I.

Lambert

. (1999). A measure of positive and negative affect for children: Scale development and preliminary validation. Psychological Assessment, 11, 326-338.

64.

*Loney

B. R.

Lima

E. N.

Butler

M. A.

(2006). Trait affectivity and non-referred adolescent conduct problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 329-336.

65.

*Lonigan

C. J.

Hooe

E. S.

David

C. F.

Kistner

J. A.

(1999). Positive and negative affectivity in children: Confirmatory factor analysis of a two-factor model and its relation to symptoms of anxiety and depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 374-386.

66.

*Lucas

R. E.

Diener

Suh

(1996). Discriminant validity of well-being measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 616-628.

67.

*Mackinnon

Jorm

A. F.

Christensen

Korten

A. E.

Jacomb

P. A.

Rodgers

(1999). A short form of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule: Evaluation of factorial validity and invariance across demographic variables in a community sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 405-416.

68.

*Manne

Schnoll

(2001). Measuring cancer patients’ psychological distress and well-being: A factor analytic assessment of the Mental Health Inventory. Psychological Assessment, 13, 99-109.

69.

*Markey

M. A.

Vander Wal

J. S.

(2007). The role of emotional intelligence and negative affect in bulimic symptomatology. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 48, 458-464.

70.

*McCabe

M. P.

Ricciardelli

L. A.

Banfield

(2001). Body image, strategies to change muscles and weight, and puberty: Do they impact on positive and negative affect among adolescent boys and girls? Eating Behaviors, 2(2), 129-149.

71.

*McCalister

K. T.

Dolbier

C. L.

Webster

J. A.

Mallon

M. W.

Steinhardt

M. A.

(2006). Hardiness and support at work as predictors of work stress and job satisfaction. American Journal of Health Promotion, 20, 183-191.

72.

*McConville

Simpson

E. E.

Rae

Polito

Andriollo-Sanchez

Meunier

. (2005). Positive and negative mood in the elderly: The ZENITH study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 59(Suppl. 2), 22-25.

73.

*McKeever

Sweeney

M. R.

Staines

(2006). An investigation of the impact of prolonged waiting times on blood donors in Ireland. Vox Sang, 90(2), 113-118.

74.

*McLennan

Bates

G. W.

Johnson

Lavery

A. R.

De Horne

(1993). The Death Fantasy Scale: A measure based on metaphors of one’s personal death. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 127, 619-624.

75.

*McQuillan

Fifield

Sheehan

T. J.

Reisine

Tennen

Hesselbrock

. (2003). A comparison of self-reports of distress and affective disorder diagnoses in rheumatoid arthritis: A receiver operator characteristic analysis. Arthritis and Rheumatism, 49, 368-376.

76.

Mehrabian

(1997). Comparison of the PAD and PANAS as models for describing emotions and for differentiating anxiety from depression. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 19, 331-357.

77.

*Meyer

T. D.

Hofmann

B. U.

(2005). Assessing the dysregulation of the Behavioral Activation System: the Hypomanic Personality Scale and the BIS-BAS scales. Journal of Personality Assessment, 85, 318-324.

78.

*Miller

B. M.

Bartholomew

J. B.

Springer

B. A.

(2005). Post-exercise affect: The effect of mode preference. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17, 263-272.

79.

*Molloy

G. N.

Pallant

J. F.

Kantas

(2001). A psychometric comparison of the positive and negative affect schedule across age and sex. Psychological Reports, 88, 861-862.

80.

*Molnar

D. S.

Reker

D. L.

Culp

N. A.

Sadava

S. W.

DeCourville

N. H.

(2006). A mediated model of perfectionism, affect, and physical health. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 482-500.

81.

*Munz

D. C.

Fallert

A. L.

(1998). Does classroom setting moderate the relationship between student mood and teaching evaluations? Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 13(1), 23-32.

82.

*Murphy

B. C.

Eisenberg

Fabes

R. A.

Shepard

Guthrie

I. K.

(1999). Consistency and change in children’s emotionality and regulation: A longitudinal study. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 45, 413-444.

83.

*Murray

Judd

Jackson

Fraser

Komiti

Pattison

. (2007). Ceremonies of the whole: Does social participation moderate the mood consequences of neuroticism? Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 42, 173-180.

84.

*Norlander

von Schedvin

Archer

(2005). Thriving as a function of affective personality: Relation to personality factors, coping strategies and stress. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 18(2), 105-116.

85.

*Ostir

G. V.

Smith

P. M.

Smith

Ottenbacher

K. J.

(2005). Reliability of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) in medical rehabilitation. Clinical Rehabilitation, 19, 767-769.

86.

*Panagopoulou

Montgomery

A. J.

Benos

Maes

(2006). Are people emotionally predisposed to experience lower quality of life? The impact of negative affectivity on quality of life in patients recovering from cardiac surgery. Social Indicators Research, 76(1), 55-69.

87.

*Park

C. L.

Cohen

L. H.

Murch

R. L.

(1996). Assessment and prediction of stress-related growth. Journal of Personality, 64(1), 71-105.

88.

*Phillips

B. M.

Lonigan

C. J.

Driscoll

Hooe

E. S.

(2002). Positive and negative affectivity in children: A multitrait-multimethod investigation. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31, 465-479.

89.

*Robazza

Bortoli

Nocini

Moser

Arslan

(2000). Normative and idiosyncratic measures of positive and negative affect in sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 1(2), 103-116.

90.

Robinson

M. D.

Clore

G. L.

(2002). Episodic and semantic knowledge in emotional self-report: Evidence for two judgment processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 198-215.

91.

*Robles

Paez

(2003). Study of Spanish translation and Psychometric Properties of the Positive and Negative Affect Scales (PANAS). Salud Mental, 26(1), 69-75.

92.

Rodriguez

M. C.

Maeda

(2006). Meta-analysis of coefficient alpha. Psychological Methods, 11, 306-322.

93.

*Roesch

S. C.

(1998). The factorial validity of trait positive affect score: Confirmatory factor analyses of unidimensional and multidimensional models. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 58, 451-466.

94.

Rosenthal

(1979). The “file-drawer problem” and tolerance for null results. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 638-641.

95.

Rouse

S. V.

(2007). Using reliability generalization methods to explore measurement error: An illustration using the MMPI-2 PSY-5 Scales. Journal of Personality Assessment, 88, 264-275.

96.

Russell

J. A.

Carroll

J. M.

(1999). On the bipolarity of positive and negative affect. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 3-30.

97.

*Sandin

Chorot

Lostao

Joiner

T. E.

Santed

M. A.

Valiente

R. M.

(1999). The PANAS scales of positive and negative affect: Factor analytic validation and cross-cultural convergence. Psicothema, 11(1), 37-51.

98.

Schmidt

F. L.

(2004). Software for the Hunter–Schmidt meta-analysis methods. Iowa City: University of Iowa.

99.

*Schmukle

S. C.

Egloff

Burns

L. R.

(2002). The relationship between positive and negative affect in the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 463-475.

100.

*Seligson

J. L.

Huebner

E. S.

Valois

R. F.

(2005). An investigation of a brief life satisfaction scale with elementary school children. Social Indicators Research, 73, 355-374.

101.

*Soliday

McCluskey-Fawcett

O’Brien

(1999). Postpartum affect and depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 69(1), 30-38.

102.

*Spoor

S. T.

Bekker

M. H.

Van Strien

van Heck

G. L.

(2007). Relations between negative affect, coping, and emotional eating. Appetite, 48, 368-376.

103.

*Staats

Skowronski

J. J.

(1992). Perceptions of self-affect: Now and in the future. Social Cognition, 10, 415-431.

104.

*Steptoe

Gibson

E. L.

Hamer

Wardle

(2007). Neuroendocrine and cardiovascular correlates of positive affect measured by ecological momentary assessment and by questionnaire. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 32(1), 56-64.

105.

*Struempfer

D. J.

(1997). Sense of coherence, negative affectivity, and general health in farm supervisors. Psychological Reports, 80, 963-966.

106.

*Suhr

J. A.

Tsanadis

(2007). Affect and personality correlates of the Iowa Gambling Task. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(1), 27-36.

107.

*Terracciano

McCrae

R. R.

Costa

P. T.

Jr. (2003). Factorial and construct validity of the Italian Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 19(2), 131-141.

108.

*Theadom

Cropley

Humphrey

K. L.

(2007). Exploring the role of sleep and coping in quality of life in fibromyalgia. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 62(2), 145-151.

109.

*Thompson

E. R.

(2007). Development and validation of an internationally reliable short-form of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38, 227-242.

110.

*Thompson

B. L.

Waltz

Croyle

Pepper

A. C.

(2007). Trait meta-mood and affect as predictors of somatic symptoms and life satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 1786-1795.

111.

*Treasure

D. C.

Monson

Lox

C. L.

(1996). Relationship between self-efficacy, wrestling performance, and affect prior to competition. The Sport Psychologist, 10(1), 73-83.

112.

*Tuohy

McVey

(2008). Subscales measuring symptoms of non-specific depression, anhedonia, and anxiety in the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47, 153-169.

113.

Vacha-Haase

(1998). Reliability generalization: Exploring variance in measurement error affecting score reliability across studies. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 58(1), 6-20.

114.

Vacha-Haase

Henson

R. K.

Caruso

J. C.

(2002). Reliability generalization: Moving toward improved understanding and use of score reliability. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 62, 562-569.

115.

Vacha-Haase

Tani

C. R.

Kogan

L. R.

Woodall

R. A.

Thompson

(2001). Reliability generalization: Exploring reliability variations on MMPI/MMPI-2 validity scale scores. Assessment, 8, 391-401.

116.

*Wang

H. H.

Liu

Y. Y.

(2000). The relationship between social support and well-being of rural elderly women. The Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Sciences, 16, 626-633.

117.

*Watson

(1988). The vicissitudes of mood measurement: Effects of varying descriptors, time frames, and response formats on measures of positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55(1), 128-141.

118.

Watson

Clark

L. A.

(1994). The PANAS-X: Manual for the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule—expanded form. Iowa City: University of Iowa.

119.

Watson

Clark

L. A.

(1997). Measurement and mismeasurement of mood: Recurrent and emergent issues. Journal of Personality Assessment, 68, 267-296.

120.

*Watson

Clark

L. A.

McIntyre

C. W.

Hamaker

(1992). Affect, personality, and social activity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 1011-1025.

121.

*Watson

Clark

L. A.

Tellegen

(1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070.

122.

*Watson

Walker

L. M.

(1996). The long-term stability and predictive validity of trait measures of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 567-577.

123.

*Weber

Titzmann

(2003). Anger-related reactions and goals: The development of a new inventory. Diagnostica, 49(3), 97-109.

124.

*Werkuyten

Nekuee

(1999). Subjective well-being, discrimination and cultural conflict: Iranians living in the Netherlands. Social Indicators Research, 47, 281-306.

125.

*Westerbotn

Aguero-Torres

Fastbom

Hilleras

(2005). A population-based study on well-being in the very old: The role of cardiovascular diseases and drugs. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 40, 287-297.

126.

Wilkinson

, & APA Task Force on Statistical Inference. (1999). Statistical methods in psychology journals: Guidelines and explanations. American Psychologist, 54, 594-604.

127.

*Williams

Stewart-Knox

McConville

Bradbury

Armstrong

N. C.

McNulty

(2008). Folate status and mood: Is there a relationship? Public Health Nutrition, 11(2), 118-123.

128.

*Wilson

Gullone

(1999). The relationship between personality and affect over the lifespan. Personality and Individual Differences, 27(6), 1141-1156.

129.

*Wilson

Gullone

Moss

(1998). The youth version of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule: A psychometric validation. Behaviour Change, 15(3), 187-193.

130.

*Wolfradt

Haerter

(2004). Investigations with a German-language version of the Health Anxiety Questionnaire (HAQ) using different samples. Zeitschrift fur Klinische Psychologie, Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, 52(1), 15-30.

131.

*Wright

T. A.

Staw

B. M.

(1999). Affect and favorable work outcomes: Two longitudinal tests of the happy-productive worker thesis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20(1), 1-23.

132.

*Yamasaki

Katsuma

Sakai

(2006). Development of a Japanese version of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for children. Psychological Reports, 99, 535-546.

133.

Yin

Fan

(2000). Assessing the reliability of Beck Depression Inventory scores: Reliability generalization across studies. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 60, 201-223.

134.

Youngstrom

E. A.

Green

K. W.

(2003). Reliability generalization of self-report of emotions when using the differential emotions scale Educational and Psychological Measurement, 63, 279-295.

135.

*Zohar

Tzischinsky

Epstein

Lavie

(2005). The effects of sleep loss on medical residents’ emotional reactions to work events: a cognitive-energy model. Sleep: Journal of Sleep and Sleep Disorders Research, 28(1), 47-54.