Education is often thought of as the great equalizer that is capable of offsetting societal inequities. Elite universities are characterized by the most selective admissions criteria, and attendance at these universities often provides access to the social capital necessary to pursue prestigious and rewarding careers. Black students attending elite universities report experiencing racism while on campus. Moreover, racism negatively impacts Black students’ well-being. Despite the importance of these issues, scholars have devoted limited attention to the postgraduate work experiences of Black graduates of elite universities. The purpose of this study was to understand the ways in which experiences of racism at work impact the well-being and work-fulfillment of Black graduates at elite universities and to examine potential factors that may protect against racism. We invited Black graduates of elite universities (N = 1,010) to complete measures that assessed racial micro aggressions, racial identity, well-being, and work-fulfillment outcomes. Results revealed that particular experiences of racism at work (microinvalidations) negatively impact well-being and that Internalization racial identity attitudes are positively related to well-being and work-fulfillment. The implications of the findings for theory development, future research, counseling practice, and public/organizational policy are discussed.
AllanB. A.OwensR. L.SterlingH. M.EnglandJ. W.DuffyR. D. (2019). Conceptualizing well-being in vocational psychology: A model of fulfilling work. The Counseling Psychologist, 47(2), 266–290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000019861527
2.
BazelaisK.BruceM. (2012). Examining the role of racial identity as a moderator of racial discrimination and psychological distress among older African American women. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20(3), S102–S103.
3.
BlusteinD. L. (2006). The psychology of working: A new perspective for career development, counseling, and public policy. LEA Associates. https://doi.org/10.1037/e531592007-001
4.
BlusteinD. L.KennyM. E.Di FabioA.GuichardJ. (2019). Expanding the impact of the psychology of working: Engaging psychology in the struggle for decent work and human rights. Journal of Career Assessment, 27(1), 3–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072718774002
5.
Bonilla-SilvaE. (2017). Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in America. Rowman & Littlefield.
6.
BrondoloE.GalloL. C.MyersH. F. (2009). Race, racism and health: Disparities, mechanisms, and interventions. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-008-9190-3
7.
Byars-WinstonA. (2010). The vocational significance of Black identity: Cultural formulation approach to career assessment and career counseling. Journal of Career Development, 37(1), 441–464. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845309345847
8.
ByrdW. C.Brunn-BevelR. J.SextonP. R. (2014). ‘We don’t all look alike’: The academic performance of black student populations at elite colleges. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 11(2), 353–385. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1742058x14000162
9.
CarterR. T.PieterseA. L. (2020). Measuring the effects of racism: Guidelines for the assessment and treatment of race-based traumatic stress injury. Columbia University Press.
10.
CarterR. T.JohnsonV. E. (2019). Racial identity statuses: Applications to practice. Practice Innovations, 4(1), 42–58. https://doi.org/10.1037/pri0000082
11.
CharlesC. Z.KramerR. A.TorresK. C.Brunn-BevelR. J. (2015). Intragroup heterogeneity and Blackness: Effects of racial classification, immigrant origins, social class, and social context on the racial identity of elite college students. Race and Social Problems, 7(4), 281–299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-015-9157-2
12.
ChettyR.FriedmanJ. N.SaezE.TurnerN.YaganD. (2017). Mobility report cards: The role of colleges in intergenerational mobility (No. w23618). National bureau of economic research.
13.
DeCuir-GunbyJ. T.GunbyN. W.Jr. (2016). Racial microaggressions in the workplace: A critical race analysis of the experiences of African American educators. Urban Education, 51(4), 390–414. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085916628610
14.
DienerE. D.EmmonsR. A.LarsenR. J.GriffinS. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
15.
DienerEOishiSLucasR (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life.Annual Review of Psychology, 54(1), 403–425.
16.
DienerESeligmanM (2004). Beyond money: Toward an economy of well-being.Psychological science in the public interest, 5(1), 1–31.
17.
DiStefanoC.HessB. (2005). Using confirmatory factor analysis for construct validation: An empirical review. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 23(3), 225–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/073428290502300303
18.
DuffyR. D.BlusteinD. L.DiemerM. A.AutinK. L. (2016). The psychology of working theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(2), 127–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000140
19.
DuffyR. D.ChoiY.KimH. J.ParkJ. (2024). Recommendations for conceptualizing and measuring constructs within psychology of working theory. Journal of Career Assessment, 32(1), 48–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/10690727231179196
20.
DuffyRKimHGensmerNRaque-BogdanTDouglassREnglandJBuyukgoze-KavasA (2019). Linking decent work with physical and mental health: A psychology of working perspective.Journal of Vocational Behavior, 112, 384–395.
21.
DuffyR. D.VelezB. L.EnglandJ. W.AutinK. L.DouglassR. P.AllanB. A.BlusteinD. L. (2018). An examination of the Psychology of Working Theory with racially and ethnically diverse employed adults. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 65(3), 280–293. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000247
22.
EdwardsJ. F. (2017). Color-blind racial attitudes: Microaggressions in the context of racism and white privilege. Administrative Issues Journal: Connecting Education, Practice, and Research, 7(1), Article 14. https://doi.org/10.5929/2017.7.1.3
23.
ErbyW.SmithC.BlusteinD.DavilaA. (2021). Racism and the future of work. Career Planning and Adult Development Journal, 37(2), 167–175.
24.
FloresL. Y.MartinezL. D.McGillenG. G.MilordJ. (2019). Something old and something new: Future directions in vocational research with people of color in the United States. Journal of Career Assessment, 27(2), 187–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072718822461
25.
FranklinA. J.Boyd-FranklinN. (2000). Invisibility syndrome: A clinical model of the effects of racism on African-American males. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(1), 33–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087691
26.
Franklin-JacksonD.CarterR. T. (2007). The relationships between race-related stress, racial identity, and mental health for Black Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 33(1), 5–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798406295092
27.
FreireP. (2000). Pedagogy of freedom: Ethics, democracy, and civic courage. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
28.
FrenchB. H.LewisJ. A.MosleyD. V.AdamesH. Y.Chavez-DueñasN. Y.ChenG. A.NevilleH. A. (2020). Toward a psychological framework of radical healing in communities of color. The Counseling Psychologist, 48(1), 14–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000019843506
29.
GeS.IsaacE.MillerA. (2018). Elite schools and opting-in: Effects of college selectivity on career and family outcomes (No. w25315). National Bureau of Economic Research.
30.
GeorgeD.MalleryP. (2019). IBM SPSS statistics 26 step by step: A simple guide and reference. Routledge.
31.
HaylesJ. M. (2003). Racial identity, self-esteem, and job satisfaction among black female corporate managers and executives. Columbia University.
32.
HelmsJ. E. (1984). Toward a theoretical explanation of the effects of race on counseling A black and white model. The Counseling Psychologist, 12(4), 153–165. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000084124013
33.
HelmsJ. E. (1995). An update of Helm’s White and people of color racial identity models. In PonterottoJ. G. J. M.CasasL. A.SuzukiC. M. A. (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp. 181–198): Sage Publications, Inc.
34.
HelmsJ. E. (2003). Racial identity in the social environment. In PedersenP. B.CareyJ. C. (Eds.), Multicultural counseling in schools: A practical handbook (pp. 44–58). Allyn & Bacon.
35.
HelmsJ. E. (2020). A race is a nice thing to have: A guide to being a white person or understanding the white persons in your life. Cognella Academic Press.
36.
HelmsJ. E.PiperR. E. (1994). Implications of racial identity theory for vocational psychology. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 44(2), 124–138. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1994.1009
37.
HolderA. M. B.JacksonM. A.PonterottoJ. G. (2015). Racial microaggression experiences and coping strategies of black women in corporate leadership. Qualitative Psychology, 2(2), 164–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/qup0000024
38.
HolmesC. J.ZajacovaA. (2014). Education as “the great equalizer”: Health benefits for black and white adults. Social Science Quarterly, 95(4), 1064–1085. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12092
39.
HughesM.KiecoltK. J.KeithV. M.DemoD. H. (2015). Racial identity and well-being among African Americans. Social Psychology Quarterly, 78(1), 25–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/0190272514554043
40.
JudgeT. A.LockeE. A.DurhamC. C.KlugerA. N. (1998). Dispositional effects on job and life satisfaction: The role of core evaluations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(1), 17–34. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.83.1.17
41.
LewisJ. A.NevilleH. A. (2015). Construction and initial validation of the gendered racial microaggressions scale for black women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(2), 289–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000062
42.
LittleT. D.RhemtullaM.GibsonK.SchoemannA. M. (2013). Why the items versus parcels controversy needn’t be one. Psychological Methods, 18(3), 285–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033266
43.
MarshH. W.LüdtkeO.NagengastB.MorinA. J.Von DavierM. (2013). Why item parcels are (almost) never appropriate: Two wrongs do not make a right—camouflaging misspecification with item parcels in CFA models. Psychological Methods, 18(3), 257–284. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032773
McDonaldR. P.HoM. H. R. (2002). Principles and practice in reporting structural equation analyses. Psychological Methods, 7(1), 64–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989x.7.1.64
46.
MertlerC. A.VannattaR. A. (2005). Advanced and multivariate statistical methods (Vol. 3). Taylor & Francis.
47.
NadalK. L. (2011). The racial and ethnic microaggressions scale (REMS): Construction, reliability, and validity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(4), 470–480. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025193
48.
NadalK. L.GriffinK. E.WongY.HamitS.RasmusM. (2014). The impact of racial microaggressions on mental health: Counseling implications for clients of color. Journal of Counseling and Development, 92(1), 57–66. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00130.x
49.
NevilleH. A.AwadG. H.BrooksJ. E.FloresM. P.BluemelJ. (2013). Color-blind racial ideology: Theory, training, and measurement implications in psychology. American Psychologist, 68(6), 455–466. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033282
50.
PierceC. (1970). Offensive mechanisms. In The black seventies (pp. 265–282). Porter Sargent.
51.
PieterseA. L.CarterR. T. (2010). The role of racial identity in perceived racism and psychological stress among Black American adults: Exploring traditional and alternative approaches. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(5), 1028–1053. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00609.x
52.
PitcanM.Park-TaylorJ.HayslettJ. (2018). Black men and racial microaggressions at work. The Career Development Quarterly, 66(4), 300–314. https://doi.org/10.1002/cdq.12152
RiveraL. A. (2015). Pedigree: How elite students get elite jobs. Princeton University Press.
55.
SchaufeliW. B.BakkerA. B. (2004). Utrecht work engagement scale: Preliminary Manual (Vol. 1). Occupational Health Psychology Unit Utrecht University.
56.
SchaufeliW. B.BakkerA. B.SalanovaM. (2006). The measurement of work engagement with a short questionnaire: A cross-national study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(4), 701–716. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164405282471
57.
SueD. W.CapodilupoC. M.TorinoG. C.BucceriJ. M.HolderA.NadalK. L.EsquilinM. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271
58.
TabachnickB. G.FidellL. S.UllmanJ. B. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (Vol. 6, pp. 497–516). Pearson.
59.
TierneyN.CookD.McBainM.FayC.O’Hara-WildM.HesterJ.SmithL. (2019). Naniar: Data structures, summaries, and visualisations for missing data. R Package.
60.
TierneyN. J.CookD. H. (2018). Expanding tidy data principles to facilitate missing data exploration, visualization and assessment of imputations. Cornell University. arXiv preprint arXiv:1809.02264.
61.
TorresK. (2009). ‘Culture shock’: Black students account for their distinctiveness at an elite college. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 32(5), 883–905. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870701710914
62.
TorresK. C.CharlesC. Z. (2004). Metastereotypes and the black–white divide: A qualitative view of race on an elite college campus. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 1(1), 115–149. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742058X0404007X
63.
VeitC. T.WareJ. E. (1983). The structure of psychological distress and well-being in general populations. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(5), 730–742. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006x.51.5.730
WarikooN. K. (2016). The diversity bargain: And other dilemmas of race, admissions, and meritocracy at elite universities. University of Chicago Press.
66.
WestonR.GoreP. A.Jr. (2006). A brief guide to structural equation modeling. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(5), 719–751. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006286345
67.
WilliamsS. (2015). Effects of gendered racism on health practices of black women: A racial and gender identity model. [Doctoral dissertation]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. Boston College.
