This study tested the Strengths-Based Inclusive Theory of Work (S-BIT of Work), a vocational theory that emphasizes positive psychological and cultural factors, among a sample of service industry workers during COVID-19. Service industry workers (N = 320) were recruited via social media sources across the United States, and structural equation modeling was used to examine the model. This model included privilege and COVID-19 impact as contextual variables; organizational support and workplace dignity as promotive workplace variables; hope, strengths use, adaptability, empowerment, and perceived COVID-19 threat as individual variables; and fulfilling work and psychological distress as outcome variables. Privilege and workplace dignity were identified as particularly important variables; results suggested privilege was positively associated with a promotive work context and negatively related to psychological distress. Additionally, the greater the amount of privilege and dignity the service industry workers experienced, the greater their positive individual characteristics were able to flourish.
AllanB. A.KimT.LiuT. Y.OwensR. L. (2021). Are work well-being variables distinct? A bifactor model of fulfilling work. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 68(4), 425-434. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000559.
2.
AllanB. A.OwensR. L.SterlingH. M.EnglandJ. W.DuffyR. D. (2019). Conceptualizing well-being in vocational psychology: A model of fulfilling work. The Counseling Psychologist, 47(2), 266–290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000019861527
BlusteinD. L.DuffyR.FerreiraJ. A.Cohen-ScaliV.CinamonR. G.AllanB. A. (2020). Unemployment in the time of COVID-19: A research agenda. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 119, 103436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103436.
5.
BoltonS. C. (2007). Dignity in and at work: Why it matters. In BoltonS. C. (Ed.), Dimensions of dignity at work (pp. 3–16). Butterworth-Heinemann.
BrownA. (2016). Career adaptability and attitudes to low-skilled work by individuals with few qualifications: ‘Getting by’, ‘getting on’ or ‘going nowhere’. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 44(2), 221–232. https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.und.edu/10.1080/03069885.2016.1145196
8.
Bureau of Labor Statistics (2019). Wage and hour division (WHD): Minimum wages for tipped employees. Generated January, 1, 2019. https://www.dol.gov/whd/state/tipped.htm
ChanS. H. J.MaiX.KuokO. M. K.KongS. H. (2016). The influence of satisfaction and promotability on the relation between career adaptability and turnover intentions. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 92, 167–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2015.12.003
11.
CombsG. M.Clapp-SmithR.NadkarniS. (2010). Managing BPO service workers in India: Examining hope on performance outcomes. Human Resource Management, 49(3), 457–476. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.20355
12.
ConwayL. G.IIIWoodardS. R.ZubrodA. (2020, April 7). Social psychological measurements of COVID-19: Coronavirus perceived threat, government response, impacts, and experiences questionnaires. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/z2x9a
13.
CubrichM. (2020). On the frontlines: Protecting low-wage workers during COVID-19. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(S1), S186–S187. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tra0000721
14.
DawisR.EnglandG.LofquistL. (1964). A theory of work adjustment. In Minnesota Studies in Vocational Rehabilitation, XV Bulletin 38. University of Minnesota. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED018590.pdf.
FassingerR. E. (2008). Workplace diversity and public policy: Challenges and opportunities for psychology. American Psychologist, 63(4), 252–268. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.63.4.252
18.
ForestJ.MageauG. A.Crevier-BraudL.BergeronÉ.DubreuilP.LavigneG. L. (2012). Harmonious passion as an explanation of the relation between signature strengths’ use and well-being at work: Test of an intervention program. Human Relations, 65(9), 1233–1252. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726711433134
19.
FulfordM. D.EnzC. A. (1995). The impact of empowerment on service employees. Journal of Managerial Issues, 7(2), 161–175. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40604059
20.
GazzoliG.HancerM.ParkY. (2010). The role and effect of job satisfaction and empowerment on customers’ perception of service quality: A study in the restaurant industry. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 34(1), 56–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348009344235
21.
GottfredsonL. S. (1981). Circumscription and compromise: A developmental theory of occupational aspirations. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28(6), 545–579. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.28.6.545
GreenhausJ. H.ParasuramanS.WormleyW. M. (1990). Effects of race on organizational experiences, job performance evaluations, and career outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 33(1), 64–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/256352
24.
HenryJ. D.CrawfordJ. R. (2005). The short-form version of the depression Anxiety stress scales (DASS-21): Construct validity and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44(Pt 2), 227–239. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466505X29657
25.
HodsonR. (2001). Dignity at work. Cambridge University Press.
26.
HollandJ. L. (1959). A theory of vocational choice. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 6(1), 35–45. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040767
27.
HuL. T.BentlerP. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
28.
HutchisonS. (1997). Perceived organizational support: further evidence of construct validity. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 57(6), 1025–1034. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164497057006011
29.
ItoJ. K.BrotheridgeC. M. (2005). Does supporting employees’ career adaptability lead to commitment, turnover, or both?Human Resource Management, 44(1), 5–19. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.20037
JuntunenC. L.WetterstenK. B. (2006). Work hope: Development and initial validation of a measure. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(1), 94–106. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.94
32.
KaratepeO. M. (2014). Hope, work engagement, and organizationally valued performance outcomes: An empirical study in the hotel industry. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 23(6), 678–698. https://doi.org/10.1080/19368623.2014.855994
33.
KeenanE.MostertK. (2013). Perceived organisational support for strengths use: The factorial validity and reliability of a new scale in the banking industry. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 39(1), 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v39i1.1052
34.
KerrB. A.MultonK. D.SymeM. L.FryN. M.OwensR.HammondM.Robinson-KurpiusS. (2012). Development of the distance from privilege measures. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 30(1), 88–102. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282911428198
35.
KirkmanB. L.RosenB. (1999). Beyond self-management: Antecedents and consequences of team empowerment. Academy of Management Journal, 42(1), 58–74. https://doi.org/10.5465/256874
36.
KniffinK. M.NarayananJ.AnseelF.AntonakisJ.AshfordS. P.BakkerA. B.BambergerP.BapujiH.BhaveD. P.ChoiV. K.CrearyS. J.DemeroutiE.FlynnF. J.GelfandM. J.GreerL. L.JohnsG.KesebirS.KleinP. G.LeeS. Y.van VugtM. (2020). COVID-19 and the workplace: Implications, issues, and insights for future research and action. The American Psychologist, 76(1), 63–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000716
37.
KrieshokT. S.BlackM. D.McKayR. A. (2009). Career decision making: The limits of rationality and the abundance of non-conscious processes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 75(3), 275–290. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2009.04.006
38.
LentR. W.BrownS. D.HackettG. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career and academic interest, choice, and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45(1), 79–122. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1994.1027
39.
LidenR. C.WayneS. J.SparroweR. T. (2000). An examination of the mediating role of psychological empowerment on the relations between the job, interpersonal relationships, and work outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(3), 407–416. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.3.407
40.
LittleT. D.CunninghamW. A.ShaharG.WidamanK. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9(2), 151–173. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_1
41.
Littman-OvadiaH.StegerM. (2010). Character strengths and well-being among volunteers and employees: Toward an integrative model. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5(6), 419–430. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2010.516765
42.
LovibondS. H.LovibondP. F. (1995). Manual for the depression anxiety & stress scales (2nd ed.). Psychology Foundation.
43.
LucasK. (2017). Workplace dignity. In ScottC. R.LewisL. (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of organizational communication (Vol. 4, pp. 2549–2562). Wiley Blackwell.
44.
MaggioriC.JohnstonC. S.KringsF.MassoudiK.RossierJ. (2013). The role of career adaptability and work conditions on general and professional well-being. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(3), 437–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.07.001
MayD. R.GilsonR. L.HarterL. M. (2004). The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77(1), 11–37. https://doi-org.ezproxy.library.und.edu/10.1348/096317904322915892
OwensR. L.AllanB. A.FloresL. Y. (2019). The strengths-based inclusive theory of work. The Counseling Psychologist, 47(2), 222–265. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000019859538
50.
OwensR. L.BaughL. M.Barrett-WallisR.HuiN.McDanielM. M. (2018). Strengths across the lifespan: A qualitative analysis of developmental trajectories and influential factors. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 4(3), 265–276. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tps0000164
51.
ParsonsF. (1909). Choosing a vocation. Houghton Mifflin.
52.
ProctorC.MaltbyJ.LinleyP. A. (2011). Strengths use as a predictor of well-being and health-related quality of life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 12(1), 153–169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-009-9181-2
53.
ReichardR. J.AveyJ. B.LopezS.DollwetM. (2013). Having the will and finding the way: A review and meta-analysis of hope at work. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 8(4), 292–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2013.800903
54.
RhoadesL.EisenbergerR. (2002). Perceived organizational support: A review of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 698–714. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.698
RottinghausP. J.DayS. X.BorgenF. H. (2005). The career futures inventory: A measure of career-related adaptability and optimism. Journal of Career Assessment, 13(1), 3–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072704270271
SavickasM. L. (1997). Career adaptability: An integrative construct for life-span, life-space theory. The Career Development Quarterly, 45(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-0045.1997.tb00469.x
59.
SchaufeliW. B.SalanovaM.González-romáV.BakkerA. B. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: A confirmative analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3(1), 71–92. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326
60.
SmithP. C.KendallL. M.HulinC. (1969). The measurement of satisfaction in work and behavior. Raud McNally.
61.
SnyderC. R. (1994). The psychology of hope: You can get there from here. Free Press.
SnyderC. R.HarrisC.AndersonJ. R.HolleranS. A.IrvingL. M.SigmonS. T. (1991). The will and the ways: Development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(4), 570–585. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.4.570
SpreitzerG. M. (1992). When organizations dare: The dynamics of individual empowerment in the workplace [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan].
66.
SpreitzerG. (2007). Giving peace a chance: organizational leadership, empowerment, and peace. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28(8), 1077–1095. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.487
67.
StegerM. F.DikB. J. (2009). If one is looking for meaning in life, does it help to find meaning in work?Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 1(3), 303-320. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-0854.2009.01018.x.
TabachnickB. G.FidellL. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Pearson.
70.
ThomasB.LucasK. (2019). Development and validation of the workplace dignity scale. Group & Organization Management, 44(1), 72–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601118807784
71.
van WoerkomM.BakkerA. B.NishiiL. H. (2016). Accumulative job demands and support for strength use: Fine-tuning the job demands-resources model using conservation of resources theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(1), 141–150. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000033
72.
WandelerC. A.MarquesS. C.LopezS. J. (2017). Hope at work. In OadesL. G.StegerM. F.FaveA. D.PassmoreJ. (Eds.), The Wiley blackwell handbook of the psychology of positivity and strengths-based approaches at work (pp. 48–59). John Wiley & Sons.
WoodA. M.LinleyP. A.MaltbyJ.KashdanT. B.HurlingR. (2011). Using personal and psychological strengths leads to increases in well-being over time: A longitudinal study and the development of the strengths use questionnaire. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(1), 15–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.08.004
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
