Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2020-11
Factor Structure of the Short Version of the Working Alliance Inventory and Its Longitudinal Measurement Invariance Across Individual Career Counseling Sessions
The aim of the present study was 2-fold: (a) to examine the factor structure of the short version of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI-S) in clients who were engaged in individual career counseling sessions and (b) to investigate whether the factor structure of the WAI-S is invariant across the first and the third career counseling sessions. A total of 283 clients seeking individual career counseling completed the WAI-S at the end of the first session (T1). Of the 283 clients, 217 also completed the WAI-S at the end of the third session (T2). Confirmatory factor analyses were performed to assess the fit of one-factor, two-factor, three-factor, and bilevel hierarchical models. The results showed that the three-factor and the bilevel hierarchical models had the best fit to the data at both T1 and T2. The factor structure of the WAI-S was invariant across the first and the third career counseling sessions. Results suggest that researchers and clinicians can use the WAI-S knowing that it adequately measures Bordin’s theoretical model of working alliance in the specific context of individual career counseling.
AlchinC.McIlveenP.PereraH. N. (2018). Negative career outlook and the working alliance in career counseling. The Career Development Quarterly, 66, 279–284. https://doi.org/10.1002/cdq.12149
2.
BludworthJ. L.TraceyT. J. G.Glidden-TraceyC. (2010). The bilevel structure of the Outcome Questionnaire-45. Psychological Assessment, 22, 350–355. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019187
3.
BordinE. S. (1979). The generalizability of the psychoanalytic concept of the working alliance. Psychotherapy, Theory, Research, and Practice, 16, 237–260. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0085885
4.
ByrneB. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS (2nd ed.). Routledge.
5.
ByrneB. M. (2012). Structural equation modeling with Mplus: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Routledge Academic.
6.
ChenF. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14, 464–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701301834
7.
CheungG. W.RensvoldR. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9, 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5
CorbièreM.BissonJ.LauzonS.RicardN. (2006). Factorial validation of a French short-form of the Working Alliance Inventory. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 15, 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.27
10.
CorbièreM.LecomteT.ReinharzD.KirshB.GoeringP.MenearM.BerbicheD.GenestK.GoldnerE. M. (2017). Predictors of acquisition of competitive employment for people enrolled in supported employment programs. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 205, 275–282. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000612
11.
CovaliT.BernaudJ.-L.Di FabioA. (2011). Processus de changement et variabilité individuelle au cours des consultations d’orientation. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 70, 175–183. https://doi.org/10.1024/1421-0185/a000053
12.
Elad-StrengerJ.Littman-OvadiaH. (2012). The contribution of the counselor-client working alliance to career exploration. Journal of Career Assessment, 20, 140–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/106907271142085
13.
FalkenströmF.HatcherR. L.HolmqvistR. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis of the patient version of the Working Alliance Inventory–Short Form Revised. Assessment, 22, 581–593. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191114552472
14.
FouadN. A.ChenY.-L.GuillenA.HenryC.KantamneniN.NovakovicA.PriesterP. E.TerryS. (2007). Role induction in career counseling. The Career Development Quarterly, 56, 19–33. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-0045.2007.tb00017.x
15.
GuillonV. (2013). Counseling de carrière, counseling et psychothérapie: quelle efficacité? In Orly-LouisI.GuillonV.LoarerE. (Eds.), Psychologie du conseil en orientation (pp. 131–158). De Boeck Supérieur.
16.
HatcherR. L.GillaspyJ. A. (2006). Development and validation of a revised short version of the Working Alliance Inventory. Psychotherapy Research, 16, 12–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503300500352500
17.
HeppnerM. J.LeeD.HeppnerP. P.McKinnonL. C.MultonK. D.GysbersN. C. (2004). The role of problem-solving appraisal in the process and outcome of career counseling. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65, 217–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00100-3
18.
HeppnerM. J.MultonK. D.GysbersN.EllisC. A.ZookC. E. (1998). The relationship of trainee self-efficacy to the process and outcome of career counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 393–402. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.45.4.393
19.
HornJ. L.McArdleJ. (1992). A practical and theoretical guide to measurement invariance in aging research. Experimental Aging Research, 18, 117–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503300500352500
20.
HorvathA. O.GreenbergL. S. (1989). Development and validation of the Working Alliance Inventory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36, 223–233. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.36.2.223
21.
HsuS.ZhouR. D. H.YuC. K. C. (2016). A Hong Kong validation of Working Alliance Inventory–Short Form–Client. Asia Pacific Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 7, 69–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/21507686.2016.1193036
22.
HuL.-T.BentlerP. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
23.
HukkelbergS. S.HogdenT. (2016). The short Working Alliance Inventory in parent training: Factor structure and longitudinal invariance. Psychotherapy Research, 26, 719–726. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2015.1119328
24.
IwanagaK.ChanF.TanseyT. N.StauserD.RitterE.BishopM.BrooksJ. (2019). Working alliance and stages of change for employment: The intermediary role of autonomous motivation, outcome expectancy and vocational rehabilitation engagement. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 29, 315–324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10926-018-9787-5
25.
KimE. S.WilsonV. L. (2014). Measurement invariance across groups in latent growth modeling. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 21, 408–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.915374
26.
LiL. C.KimB. S. K. (2004). Effects of counseling style and client adherence to Asian cultural values on counseling process with Asian American college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 158–167. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.51.2.158
27.
MasdonatiJ.PerdrixS.MassoudiK.RossierJ. (2014). Working alliance as a moderator and a mediator of career counseling effectiveness. Journal of Career Assessment, 22, 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072713487489
28.
MichaudG.SavardR.PaquetteS.LamarcheL. (2012). Bilan de compétences en entreprise: maintien en emploi des travailleurs d’expérience. Rapport de recherche.
29.
Milot-LapointeF.SavardR.Le CorffY. (2018). Intervention components and working alliance as predictors of individual career counseling effect on career decision-making difficulties. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 107, 15–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2018.03.001
30.
Milot-LapointeF.SavardR.Le CorffY. (2019). Effect of individual career counseling on psychological distress: Impact of career intervention components, working alliance, and career indecision. International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10775-019-09402-6
31.
MultonK. D.Ellis-KaltonC. A.HeppnerM. J.GysbersN. C. (2003). The relationship between counselor verbal response modes and the working alliance in career counseling. The Career Development Quarterly, 51, 259–273. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-0045.2003.tb00606.x
32.
MultonK. D.HeppnerM. J.GysbersN. C.ZookC.Ellis-KaltonC. A. (2001). Client psychological distress: An important factor in career counseling. The Career Development Quarterly, 49, 324–335. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-0045.2001.tb00960.x
33.
MurrayS. E. (1997). Working alliance and session impact in career counseling for Vietnam-era veterans with and without post-traumatic stress disorder [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Missouri.
34.
MuthénL. K.MuthénB. O. (1998–2018). Mplus user’ guide. Eighth edition et versopm 8.1 Mplus language addendum. Muthén & Muthén
35.
PerdrixS.de RotenY.KollyS.RossierJ. (2010). The psychometric properties of the WAI in a career counseling setting: Comparison with a personal counseling sample. Journal of Career Assessment, 18, 409–419. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072710374583
36.
RossE. C.PolaschekD. L. L.WilsonM. (2011). Shifting perspectives: A confirmatory factor analysis of the Working Alliance Inventory (short form) with high-risk violent offenders. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 55, 1308–1323. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X1138494
37.
SendrowitzK. A. (2011). Testing the influence of counselor’ self-disclosure in career counseling: Does the content of the disclosure matter [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]?University of Albany.
38.
SmitsD.LuyckxK.SmitsD.StinckensN.ClaesL. (2015). Structural characteristics and external correlated of the Working Alliance Inventory–Short Form. Psychological Assessment, 27, 545–551. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000066
39.
TatmanA. W.LoveK. M. (2010). An offender version of the Working Alliance Inventory–Short Revised. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 49, 165–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/1050967100366656
40.
TorresA.FrainM.TanseyT. N. (2019). The impact of motivational interviewing training on rehabilitation counselors: Assessing working alliance and client engagement. A randomized controlled trial. Rehabilitation Psychology, 64, 328–338. https://doi.org/10.1037/rep0000267
41.
TraceyT. J.KokotovicA. M. (1989). Factor structure of the Working Alliance Inventory. Psychological assessment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1, 207–210. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.1.3.207
42.
VerbruggenM.DriesN.Van LaerK. (2017). Challenging the uniformity myth in career counseling outcome studies: Examining the role of clients’ initial career counseling goals. Journal of Career Assessment, 21, 159–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072716657797
43.
WhistonS. C.LiY.MittsN.GWrightL. (2017). Effectiveness of career choice interventions: A meta-analytic replication and extension. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 100, 175–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2017.03.010
44.
WhistonS. C.RossierJ.BarónP. M. H. (2016). The working alliance in career counseling: A systematic overview. Journal of Career Assessment, 24, 591–604. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072715615849
45.
WickramaK. A. S.LeeT. K.O’NealC. W.LorenzF. O. (2016). Multivariate applications series. Higher-order growth curves and mixture modeling with Mplus: A practical guide. Routledge/Taylor & Francis.
