This study aimed to develop and validate two Portuguese versions of the Work–Family Conflict Scale (WFCS) and the Work–Family Enrichment Scale (WFES), testing for its factor structure validity, reliability, and measurement invariance across gender. Both WFCS and WFES were translated according to the guidelines of the International Test Commission and tested with two Portuguese samples of working parents, involved in dual-earner relationships. The validation of these two scales was established by confirming the dimensionality of their structures (first- and second-order confirmatory factor analyses) and demonstrating the good discriminant validity, convergent validity, and internal consistency of its subscales. Finally, for both WFCS and WFES, a two-group measurement procedure allowed to demonstrate their measurement invariance across gender.
BagozziR. P.YiY. (1988). On the evaluation of structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 16, 74–94. doi:10.1177/009207038801600107
2.
BianchiS. M.MilkieM. A. (2010). Work and family research in the first decade of the 21st century. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 705–725. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00726.x
3.
BollenK. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York, NY: Wiley.
4.
ByrneB. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis.
5.
ByronK. (2005). A meta-analytic review of work-family conflict and its antecedents. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 67, 169–198. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2004.08.009
6.
CarlsonD. S.KacmarK. M.WilliamsL. J. (2000). Construction and initial validation of a multidimensional measure of work–family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56, 249–276. doi:10.1006/jvbe.1999.1713
7.
CarlsonD. S.KacmarK. M.WayneJ. H.GrzywaczJ. G. (2006). Measuring the positive side of the work-family interface: Development and validation of a work-family enrichment scale. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68, 131–164. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2005.02.002
8.
EbyL. T.CasperW. J.LockwoodA.BordeauxC.BrinleyA. (2005). Work and family research in IO/OB: Content analysis and review of the literature (1980-2002). Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66, 124–197. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2003.11.003
9.
EdwardsJ. R.RothbardN. P. (2000). Mechanisms linking work and family: Clarifying the relationship between work and family constructs. Academy of Management Review, 25, 178–199.
10.
Eurostat. (2008). Key figures on Europe (2009 edition). Luxembourg: European Commission.
FornellC.LarkerD. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 39–50.
13.
FroneM. R. (2003). Work–family balance. In QuickJ. C.TetrickL. E. (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (pp. 143–162). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
14.
FroneM.R.YardleyJ. K.MarkelK.S. (1997). Developing and testing an integrative model of the work-family interface. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 145–167. doi: 10.1006/jvbe.1996.1577
15.
FontaineA.AndradeC.MatiasM.GatoJ.MendonçaM. (2007). Family and work division in dual-earner families in Portugal. In CrespiI. (Ed.), Gender mainstreaming and family policy in Europe: Perspectives, research and debates (pp. 167–198). Milan, Italy: Vita e Pensiero.
16.
GreenhausJ. H.AllenT. D.SpectorP. E. (2006). Health consequences of work–family conflict: The dark side of the work–family interface. In PerreweP. L.GansterD. C. (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well-being (vol. 5, pp. 61–98). Oxford, England: Elsevier.
17.
GreenhausJ. H.BeutellN. J. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review, 10, 76–88. doi:10.2307/258214
18.
GreenhausJ. H.PowellG. N. (2006). When work and family are allies: A theory of work-family enrichment. Academy of Management Review, 31, 72–92. doi:10.2307/20159186
19.
GrzywaczJ. G. (2000). Work-family spillover and health during midlife: Is managing conflict everything?American Journal of Health Promotion, 14, 236–243. Retrieved fromhttp://www.midus.wisc.edu/findings/pdfs/39.pdf
20.
GrzywaczJ. G.BassB. L. (2003). Work, family, and mental health: Testing different models of work-family fit. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 65, 248–262. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2003.00248.x
21.
HairJ.BlackW.BabinB.AndersonR. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
22.
HambletonR. K.MerendaP. F.SpielbergerC. D. (2005). Adapting educational and psychological tests for cross-cultural assessment. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
23.
HuL.BentlerP. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118
24.
International Test Commission. (2010). International test commission guidelines for translating and adapting tests. Retrieved fromhttp://www.intestcom.org
25.
KahnR. L.WolfeD. M.QuinnR. P.SnoekJ. D.RosenthalR. A. (1964). Organizational stress: Studies in role conflict and ambiguity. New York, NY: Wiley.
26.
KarimiL. (2008). A study of a multidimensional model of work-family conflict among Iranian employees. Community, Work & Family, 11, 283–295. doi:10.1080/13668800802133958
27.
KossekE. E.OzekiC. (1998).Work–family conflict, policies, and the job–life satisfaction relationship: A review and directions for organizational behavior-human resources research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 139–149. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2004.05.004
28.
LimD. H.ChoiM.SongJ. H. (2011). Work-family enrichment in Korea: Construct validation and status. Leadership & Organization: Development Journal, 33, 282–299. doi:10.1108/01-4377312112164770
29.
LimD. H.MorrisM. L.McMillanH. S. (2011). Construct validation of the translated version of the work–family conflict scale for use in Korea. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 22, 519–543. doi:1002/hrdq.20089
30.
MarksS. R. (1977). Multiple roles and role strain: Some notes on human energy, time, and commitment. American Sociological Review, 42, 921–936.
31.
MarshH. W. (1995). Confirmatory factor analysis models of factorial invariance: A multifaceted approach. Structural Equation Modeling, 1, 5–34. doi:10.1080/10705519409539960
32.
MatthewsR. A.KathL. M.Barness-FarrellJ. L. (2010). A short, valid, predictive measure of work–family conflict: Item selection and scale validation. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15, 75–90. doi:10.1037/a0017443
33.
McNallL. A.NicklinJ. M.MasudaA. D. (2010). A meta-analytic review of the consequences associated with work–family enrichment. Journal of Business & Psychology, 25, 381–396. doi:10.1007/s 10869-009-9141-1
34.
Mesmer-MagnusJ. R.ViswesvaranC. (2005). Convergence between measures of work-to-family and family-to-work conflict: A meta-analytic examination. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 67, 215–232. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2004.05.004
35.
MichelJ. S.KotrbaL. M.MitchelsonJ. K.ClarkM. A.BaltesB. B. (2011). Antecedents of work–family conflict: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32, 689–725. doi:10.1002/job.695
36.
MortazaviS.PedhiwalaN.ShafiroM.HammerL. (2009). Work-family conflict related to culture and gender. Community, Work & Family, 12, 251–273. doi:10.1080/13668800902779023
37.
NunnallyJ. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw–Hill.
38.
PeristaH. (2002). Género e trabalho não pago: os tempos das mulheres e os tempos dos homens. Análise Social, 37, 447–474.
39.
PoeschlG. (2000). Trabalho doméstico e poder familiar: Práticas, normas e ideais. Análise Social, 35, 695–719.
40.
ScheinE. H. (1984). Culture as an environmental context for careers. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 5, 71–81.
41.
SchultheissD. P. (2006). The interface of work and family life. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 37, 334–341. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.37.4.334
42.
SchumackerR. E.LomaxR. G. (2004). A beginner's guide to structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
43.
SieberS. D. (1974). Toward a theory of role accumulation. American Sociological Review, 39, 567–578.
44.
SpectorP. E.AllenT. D.PoelmansS. A. Y.LapierreL. M.CooperC. L.O’DriscollM.…Widerszal-Bazyl, M. (2007). Cross-national differences in relationships of work demands, job satisfaction and turnover intentions with work-family conflict. Personnel Psychology, 60, 805–835.
45.
TabachnickB. G.FidellL. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). New York, NY: Allyn and Bacon.
46.
TorresA. (2004). Vida conjugal e trabalho: Uma perspectiva sociológica. Oeiras, Portugal: Celta Editora.
47.
TriandisH. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
48.
VoydanoffP. (2005). Social integration, work-family conflict and facilitation, and job and marital quality. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 666–679. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2005.00161.x
49.
WallK. (2007). Atitudes face à divisão familiar do trabalho em Portugal e na Europa. In WallK.AmâncioL. (Eds), Família e género, atitudes sociais dos Portugueses (pp. 211–257). Lisboa, Portugal: Imprensa de Ciências Sociais.
50.
WataiI.NishikidoN.MurashimaS. (2006). Development of a Japanese version of the work-family conflict scale (WFCS) and examination of its validity and reliability. Sangyo Eiseigaku Zasshi, 48, 71–81. doi:10.1539/sangyoeisei.48.71
51.
WilliamsL. J.BozdoganH.Aiman-SmithL. (1996). Inference problems with equivalent models. In MarcoulidesG. A.SchumackerR. E. (Eds.), Advanced structural equations modeling (pp. 279–314). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
52.
WheatonB.MuthenB.AlwinD. F.SummersG. (1977). Assessing reliability and stability in panel models, Sociological Methodology, 8, 84–136.
53.
YangN.ChenC. C.ChoiJ.ZouY.2000. Sources of work-family conflict: A Sino-U.S. comparison of the effects of work and family demands. Academy of Management Journal, 43, 113–123.
