Drawing upon hardiness theory and research on academic motivation we developed and administered a measure of academic hardiness to a large sample of high school students. In line with theory- and research-derived expectations, results of both principal axis factor analyses (PAF) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) yielded support for a three-factor model of the construct. Supplemental analyses indicated that, after controlling for general academic self-concept, the challenge subscale of our novel measure differentiated students who pursued more difficult academic coursework and educational plans from those who did not.
Altmann, H.A., & DuPont, S.F. (1988). The relationship between academic self-concept and academic achievement. Canadian Journal of Counseling, 22(3), 170-174.
2.
Bachman, J.G., & O'Malley, P.M. (1986). Self-concepts, self-esteem, and educational experiences: The frog pond revisited (again. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 35-46.
3.
Bartone, P.T. (1989). Predictors of stress-related illness in city bus drivers. Journal of Occupational Medicine, 31, 657-663.
4.
Bentler, P.M. (1990). Comparative fit indices in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238-246.
5.
Bentler, P.M., & Bonnet, D.G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness-of-fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin , 88, 588-606.
6.
Bentler, P.M., & Wu, E.J.C. (1998). EQS for Windows: Version 5.7. Encino: CA: Multivariate Software
7.
Betz, N. (1978). Prevalence, distribution, and correlates of math anxiety in college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology , 25, 441-448.
8.
Bryant, F.B., & Yarnold, P.R. (1995). Principal-components analysis and exploratory and confirmatory analysis. In L. G. Grimm & P. R. Yarnold (Eds.), Reading and understanding multivariate statistics (pp. 99-136). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
9.
Byrne, B.M. (1988). Self-concept/academic achievement relations: An investigation of dimensionality, stability, and causality. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 18, 173-186.
10.
Byrne, B.M. (1989). A primer of LISREL: Basic applications and programming for confirmatory factor analytic models. New York: Springer-Verlag.
11.
Cantor, N., & Norem, J.K. (1989). Defensive pessimism and stress and coping. Social Cognition, 7(2), 92-112.
12.
Cole, D.A. (1987). Utility of confirmatory factor analysis in test validation research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 24, 584-594.
13.
Crowne, D.P., & Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability. Journal of Educational Psychology, 24, 249-254.
14.
Crowne, D.P., & Marlowe, D. (1964). The approval motive. New York : Wiley.
Dweck, C.S., & Leggett, E.L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256-273.
17.
Dweck, C.S., & Sorich, L. (1999). Mastery-oriented thinking. In C. R. Snyder (Ed.), Coping: The psychology of what works (pp. 232-251). New York: Oxford University Press
18.
. Eccles, J. (1986). Gender roles and women's achievement. Educational Researcher, 95, 15-19.
19.
Elliott, E.S., & Dweck, C.S. (1988). Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 5-12.
Hansford, B.C., & Hattie, J.A. (1982). The relationship between self and selfachievement/performance measures. Review of Educational Research, 52, 123-142.
22.
Henderson, V., & Dweck, C.S. (1990). Achievement and motivation. In S. Feldman & G. Elliott (Eds.), At the threshold: The developing adolescent (pp. 308-329). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press .
23.
Hills, H., & Novell, N. (1991). The examination of hardiness and neuroticism as potential moderators of stress outcomes. Behavioral Medicine , Spring, 31-38.
24.
House, J.D. (1992). The relationship between academic self-concept, achievement-related expectancies, and college attrition. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 5-10.
25.
Hoyle, R.H., & Panter, A.T. (1995). Writing about structural equation models. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 158-176). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
26.
Jöreskog, K.G., & Sörbom, D. (1984). LISREL VI user's guide. Mooresville, IN: Scientific Software.
27.
Kobasa, S.C. (1979). Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1-11.
28.
Kuo, W.H., & Tsai, Y. (1986). Social networking, hardiness, and immigrants mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 27, 133-149.
29.
Loehlin, J.C. (1992). Latent variable models: An introduction to factor, path, and structural analysis (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
30.
Lopez, F.G., & Lent, R.W. (1992). Sources of mathematics self-efficacy in high school students. Career Development Quarterly, 41, 3-12.
31.
Lopez, F.G., Lent, R.W., Brown, S.D., & Gore, P.A., Jr. (1997). Role of social-cognitive expectations in high school students' mathematics-related interest and performance. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44(1), 44-52.
32.
Lyon, M.A., & McDonald, N.T. (1990). Academic self-concept as a predictor of achievement for a sample of elementary school students. Psychological Reports, 66, 1135-1142.
33.
Magnani, L.E. (1990). Hardiness, self-perceived health, and activity among independently functioning older adults. Scholarly Inquiry for Nursing Practice: An International Journal, 4, 171-184.
34.
Marija J. Norusis/SPSS, Inc. (1990). SPSS base system user's guide. Chicago, IL: SPSS, Inc.
35.
Marsh, H.W. (1992). Content specificity of relations between academic achievement and academic self-concept. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(1), 35-42.
36.
Marsh, H.W., & Hocevar, D. (1985). Application of confirmatory factor analysis to the study of self-concept: First and higher order factor models and their invariance across groups. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 562-582.
37.
Marsh, H.W., Walker, R., & Debus, R. (1991). Subject-specific components of academic self-concept and self-efficacy. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 16, 331-345.
38.
McNeil, K., Kozma, A., & Hannah, E. (1986). Measurement of psychological hardiness in older adults. Canadian Journal on Aging, 5(1), 43-48.
39.
Mueller, C.M., & Dweck, C.S. (1998). Intelligence praise can undermine motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 75, 33-52.
40.
Muijs, R.D. (1997). Predictors of academic achievement and academic self-concept: A longitudinal perspective. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67(3), 262-277.
41.
National Assessment of Educational Progress. ( 1988). The mathematics report card: Are we measuring up? Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service .
42.
National Center for Educational Statistics. ( 1984). High school and beyond: A national longitudinal study for the 1980s. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
43.
National Center for Educational Statistics. ( 1998). Digest of education statistics 1998. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
44.
Norem, J.K., & Cantor, N. (1986a). Anticipatory and post hoc cushioning strategies: Optimism and defensive pessimism in "risky" situations. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 10(3), 347-362.
45.
Norem, J.K., & Cantor, N. (1986b). Defensive pessimism: "Harnessing" anxiety as motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1208-1217.
46.
Nunnally, J.C. (1978). Psychometric theory. New York : McGraw Hill.
47.
Okun, M.A., Zautra, A.J., & Robinson, S.E. (1988). Hardiness and health among women with rheumatoid arthritis. Personality and Individual Differences, 9, 101-107.
48.
Ouellette, S.C. (1993). Inquiries into hardiness. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.), Handbook of stress: Theoretical and clinical aspects (pp. 77-100). New York: Free Press.
49.
Pierce, C.M.B., & Molloy, G.N. (1990). Psychological and biological differences between secondary school teachers experiencing high and low levels of burnout. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 60, 37-51.
50.
Rahim, A.M., & Magner, N.R. (1995). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Styles of Handling Interpersonal Conflict: First-order factor model and its invariance across groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 122-132.
51.
Reynolds, W.M. (1988). Measurement of academic self-concept in college students. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52, 223-240.
52.
Rhodewalt, F., & Zone, J.B. (1989). Appraisal of life change, depression, and illness in hardy and non-hardy women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 81-88.
53.
Robinson, J.P., Shaver, P.R., & Wrightsman, L.S. (1991). Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
54.
Shavelson, R.J., & Bolus, R. (1982). Self-concept: The interplay of theory and methods . Journal of Educational Psychology, 47, 3-17.
55.
Sheppard, J.A., & Kashani, J.H. (1991). The relationship of hardiness, gender, and stress to health outcomes in adolescents. Journal of Personality , 59, 747-768.
56.
Stevens, J. (1992). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
57.
Tabachnick, B.G., & Fidell, L.S. (1996). Using multivariate statistics (3rd ed.). New York: Harper Collins .
58.
Ullman, J.B. (1996). Structural equation modeling. In B. G. Tabachnick & L. S. Fidell (Eds.), Using multivariate statistics (pp. 709-811). New York: Harper Collins.
59.
West, S.G., Finch, J.F., & Curran, P.J. (1995). Structural equation models with nonnormal variables: Problems and remedies. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 56-75). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
60.
Westman, M. (1990). The relationship between stress and performance: The moderating effect of hardiness. Human Performance, 3(3), 141-155.
