This study explores the under-researched topic of men's lived experiences of miscarriage within the Iranian context for the first time. A qualitative descriptive phenomenological approach was employed to explore the lived experiences of fathers following their partner's miscarriage. Seven participants were recruited through purposive sampling and participated in in-depth, semi-structured interviews. Colaizzi's method of analysis, a structured approach to phenomenological research, revealed 7 core themes and 18 sub-themes. These themes highlight the multifaceted nature of men's experiences, including (1) pre-miscarriage paternal factors, (2) challenging farewell, (3) superiority of motherhood, (4) foggy couple interactions, (5) navigating the adjustment path, (6) varied functions and roles of the social network, and (7) turning the page: life after miscarriage. The study found that various factors influence men's lived experiences of miscarriage, including perceptions of fatherhood before pregnancy, attachment to the fetus, coping strategies, facilitators, barriers to adaptation, and the reactions of those around them. Notably, the research underscores the significance of the emotional bond men develop during pregnancy, impacting their grief and sorrow upon loss. Furthermore, this study sheds light on the concept of “invisible grief” experienced by Iranian fathers following miscarriage. This neglect was influenced by both societal expectations and the men's reluctance to acknowledge their grief.
AbboudL.LiamputtongP. (2005). When pregnancy fails: Coping strategies, support networks and experiences with the health care of ethnic women and their partners. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 23(1), 3–18. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1080/02646830512331330974
2.
AlexopoulosJ.TmejA.NadererA.GrussmannM.TordyK.Stammler-SafarM.FeichtingerK.GipperichA.Leithner-DziubasK. (2023). Men don’t cry: The supporting role as necessary for women’s well-being after termination of pregnancy. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 164(3), 1205–1211. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijgo.15234
AndersonG. M. (2023). Men’s experience of miscarriage: Coping with the loss of a life and future (Publication No. 5017) [Doctoral dissertation, Liberty University]. Doctoral Dissertations and Projects. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/5017.
6.
AydinR.KabukcuoğluK. (2021). Fathers’ experiences of perinatal loss: A sample meta-synthesis study. Journal of Family Issues, 42(9), 2083–2110. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X20966002
7.
BadenhorstW.HughesP. (2007). Psychological aspects of perinatal loss. Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 21(2), 249–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2006.11.004
8.
BeutelM.WillnerH.DeckardtR.Von RadM.WeinerH. (1996). Similarities and differences in couples’ grief reactions following a miscarriage: Results from a longitudinal study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 40(3), 245–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(95)00520-x
9.
BrierN. (2008). Grief following miscarriage: A comprehensive review of the literature. Journal of Women's Health, 17(3), 451–464. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2007.0505
10.
ButeJ. J.BrannM.HernandezR. (2019). Exploring societal-level privacy rules for talking about miscarriage. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(2), 379–399. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407517731828
11.
CondonJ.CorkindaleC.BoyceP.GambleE. (2013). A longitudinal study of father-to-infant attachment: Antecedents and correlates. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 31(1), 15–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646838.2012.757694
12.
ConwayK.RussellG. (2000). Couples’ grief and experience of support in the aftermath of miscarriage. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 73(4), 531–545. https://doi.org/10.1348/000711200160714
13.
ColaizziP. F. (1978). Psychological research as the phenomenologist views it. In R. S. Valle & M. king (Eds.),. Existential–phenomenological alternatives for psychology (pp. 48–71). Oxford University Press.
14.
CreswellJ. W.PothC. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). Sage Publications.
15.
CrumA. J.AkinolaM.MartinA.FathS. (2017). The role of stress mindset in shaping cognitive, emotional, and physiological responses to challenging and threatening stress. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 30(4), 379–395. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2016.1275585
16.
DarrouxN. (2022). An analysis of the disenfranchised grief of involuntary childless women (Publication No. 3587) [Doctoral dissertation, Liberty University]. Doctoral Dissertations and Projects. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/3587.
DueC.ChiarolliS.RiggsD. W. (2017). The impact of pregnancy loss on men's health and well-being: A systematic review. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 17(1), 380. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-017-1560-9
FarrenJ.JalmbrantM.FalconieriN.Mitchell-JonesN.BobdiwalaS.Al-MemarM.TappS.Van CalsterB.WynantsL.TimmermanD.BourneT. (2021). Differences in posttraumatic stress, anxiety, and depression following a miscarriage or ectopic pregnancy between women and their partners: Multicenter prospective cohort study. Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology, 57(1), 141–148. https://doi.org/10.1002/uog.23147
21.
Fernandez-SolaC.Camacho-ءvilaM.Hernandez-PadillaJ. M.Fernandez-MedinaI. M.Jiménez-LَpezF. R.Hernandez-SanchezE.Conesa-FerrarB. L.Granero-MolinaJ. (2020). Impact of perinatal death on the social and family context of the parents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(10), 3421. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17103421
22.
GaleottiM.MitchellG.TomlinsonM.AventinÁ (2022). Factors affecting the emotional well-being of women and men who experience miscarriage in hospital settings: A scoping review. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 22(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-022-04585-3
23.
GallM. D.GallJ. P.BorgW. R. (2003). Educational research: An introduction (7th ed.). Allyn & Bacon.
24.
HebertR. S.DangQ.SchulzR. (2006). Preparedness for the death of a loved one and mental health in bereaved caregivers of patients with dementia: Findings from the REACH study. Journal of Palliative Medicine, 9(3), 683–693. https://doi.org/10.1089/jpm.2006.9.683
25.
HiefnerA. R. (2021). Dyadic coping and couple resilience after miscarriage. Family Relations, 70(1), 59–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12475
26.
HorstmanH. K.HolmanA. J.JohnsenL. J. (2021). Men coping with miscarriage: How spousal emotional support contributes to the relationship between parenting identity and well-being about pregnancy loss. Southern Communication Journal, 86(3), 256–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/1041794X.2021.1919918
27.
HuffmanC. S.SchwartzT. A.SwansonK. M. (2015). Couples and miscarriage: The influence of gender and reproductive factors on the impact of miscarriage. Women's Health Issues, 25(5), 570–578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.whi.2015.04.005
28.
Iwanowicz-PalusG.MrózM.BieńA. (2021). Quality of life, social support, and self-efficacy in women after a miscarriage. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 19(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-020-01662-z
29.
JamshidimaneshM.AstarakiL.Behboodi MoghadamZ.TaghizadehZ.HaghaniH. (2013). Maternal-fetal attachment and its associated factors. Journal of Hayat, 18(5), 33–45. http://hayat.tums.ac.ir/article-1-4-en.html.
30.
JohnsonM. P.BakerS. R. (2004). Implications of coping repertoire as predictors of men's stress, anxiety, and depression following pregnancy, childbirth, and miscarriage: A longitudinal study. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology, 25(2), 87–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/01674820412331282240
31.
JohnsonM. P.PuddifootJ. E. (1998). Miscarriage: Is vividness of visual imagery a factor in the grief reaction of the partner?British Journal of Health Psychology, 3(2), 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8287.1998.tb00562.x
32.
JuthV.SmythJ. M.CareyM. P.LeporeS. J. (2015). Social constraints are associated with negative psychological and physical adjustment in bereavement. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 7(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12041
KongG. W. S.ChungT. K. H.LaiB. P. Y.LokI. H. (2010). Gender comparison of psychological reaction after miscarriage—a 1-year longitudinal study. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 117(10), 1211–1219. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0528.2010.02653.x
35.
LeClair-UnderbergC. (2008). Communically coping with miscarriage: The impact of emotional support and narrative coherence on women's individual and relational well-being (Master’s thesis, University of Nebraska–Lincoln). University of Nebraska–Lincoln Digital Commons. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/commstudiesdiss/1/.
36.
LeeL.MaW.DaviesS.KammersM. (2023). Toward optimal emotional care during the experience of miscarriage: An integrative review of the perspectives of women, partners, and health care providers. Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health, 68(1), 52–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmwh.13414
37.
MarquardtN.StierleK. E.van der VeldenE. M.SchürmannV. (2023). Mental readiness in emergency response tasks. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 36(3), 111–123. https://doi.org/10.56811/PIQ-21-0011
38.
MartinT. L.DokaK. J. (2021). The Influence of Gender and Socialization on Grieving Styles (pp. 69–77). Routledge.
McGarva-CollinsS.SummersS. J.CaygillL. (2022). Breaking the silence: Men’s experience of miscarriage. An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Illness, Crisis & Loss, 32(1), 244–265. https://doi.org/10.1177/10541373221133003
41.
MeaneyS.CorcoranP.SpillaneN. (2017a). Experience of miscarriage: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. British medical journal Open, 7(3), e011382. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011382
42.
MeaneyS.EverardC. M.GallagherS.O'DonoghueK. (2017b). Parents’ concerns about future pregnancy after stillbirth: A qualitative study. Health Expectations, 20(4), 555–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/hex.12480
43.
MerriamS. B.TisdellE. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass.
44.
MillerE. J.Temple-SmithM. J.BilardiJ. E. (2019). ‘There was just no-one there to acknowledge that it happened to me as well’: A qualitative study of male partner’s experience of miscarriage. PloS One, 14(5), e0217395. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217395
NguyenV.Temple-SmithM.BilardiJ. (2019). Men's lived experiences of perinatal loss: A review of the literature. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 59(6), 757–766. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajo.13041
47.
ObstK. L. (2022). Men's experiences of grief and support following pregnancy loss and neonatal death [Doctoral dissertation. Flinders University]. CORE. https://core.ac.uk/download/553761132.pdf.
48.
ObstK. L.OxladM.DueC.MiddletonP. (2021). Factors contributing to men’s grief following pregnancy loss and neonatal death: Further development of an emerging model in an Australian sample. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 21(1), 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-020-03514-6
49.
O’LearyJ.ThorwickC. (2006). Fathers’ perspectives during pregnancy, postperinatal loss. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing, 35(1), 78–86. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1552-6909.2006.00017.x
50.
PattersonC. (2018). Constructing narrative and phenomenological meaning within one study. Qualitative Research Journal, 18(3), 223–237. https://doi.org/10.1108/QRJ-D-17-. 00033
QuenbyS.GallosI. D.Dhillon-SmithR. K.PodesekM.StephensonM. D.FisherJ.CoomarasamyA. (2021). Miscarriage matters: The epidemiological, physical, psychological, and economic costs of early pregnancy loss. The Lancet, 397(10285), 1658–1667. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(21)00682-6
54.
RodriguesM. M.deL.HogaL. A. K. (2005). Homens e abortamento espontâneo: Narrativas das experiências compartilhadas. Revista Da Escola De Enfermagem Da Usp, 39(3), 258–267. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0080-62342005000300003
SmithK. V.EhlersA.EhlersA. (2021). Prolonged grief and posttraumatic stress disorder following the loss of a significant other: An investigation of cognitive and behavioural differences. PLOS ONE, 16(4), e0248852–18. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0248852
Story ChavezM.HandleyV.Lucero JonesR.EddyB.PollV. (2019). Men’s experiences of miscarriage: A passive phenomenological analysis of online data. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 24(7), 664–677. https://doi.org/10.1080/23802359.2019.1611230
62.
SwansonK. M.KarmaliZ. A.PowellS. H.PulvermakherF. (2003). Miscarriage effects on couples’ interpersonal and sexual relationships during the first year after loss: Women’s perceptions. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65(5), 902–910. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.psy.0000079381.58810.84
63.
VagleM. D. (2018). Crafting phenomenological research (2nd ed.). Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
64.
VolgstenH.JanssonC.SvanbergA. S.DarjE.Stavreus-EversA. (2018). Longitudinal study of emotional experiences, grief and depressive symptoms in women and men after miscarriage. Midwifery, 64, 23–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2018.05.003
65.
WagnerN. J.VaughnC. T.TuazonV. E. (2018). Fathers’ lived experiences of miscarriage. The Family Journal, 26(2), 193–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480718770154
66.
WilliamsH. M.ToppingA.CoomarasamyA.JonesL. L. (2019). Men and miscarriage: A systematic review and thematic synthesis. Qualitative Health Research, 30(1), 133–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732319870270
67.
YoungD. S.CaseyE. A. (2018). An examination of the sufficiency of small qualitative samples. Social Work Research, 43(1), 53–58. https://doi.org/10.1093/SWR/SVY026
