Previous research has yielded mixed results about the relationships between intensive parenting attitudes and parental emotions. Further, very few studies have investigated the indirect effects of intensive parenting attitudes on parental anger through parental emotion regulation. In this study, we aim to understand the direct and indirect relationships among these variables, particularly focusing on essentialism and fulfillment and orientation to a child's emotions and emotional lack of control. Results from 654 parents with diverse racial backgrounds indicated that essentialism and fulfillment were significant predictors of parents' use of two dimensions of emotion regulation and that both dimensions were significant predictors of parental anger expression. While emotional lack of control was a significant predictor of parental anger experience, orientation was not. Mediation analyses showed that orientation was a positive mediating emotion regulation between essentialism and anger expression but a negative mediating emotion regulation between fulfillment and anger expression. Emotional lack of control was a positive mediating emotion regulation between essentialism and two anger dimensions but a negative mediating emotion regulation between fulfillment and two anger dimensions. We discussed all these results under the counseling context of helping parents regulate their anger.
AdamsE. A. (2020). Intensive parenting ideologies and risks for recidivism among justice-involved mothers. Women & Criminal Justice, 30(5), 316–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/08974454.2020.1741487
3.
AndersonJ. C.GerbingD. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411
4.
AverillJ. (1982). Anger and aggression: An essay on emotion. Springer-Verlag.
5.
BeckU.Beck-GernsheimE. (1995). The normal chaos of love. Polity.
BertrandM. (2013). Work on women’s work is never done: Career, family and the well-being of college-educated women. American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings, 103(3), 244–250. http://doi.org/10.1257/aer.103.3.244
8.
BoasT. C.ChristensonD. P.GlickD. M. (2018). Recruiting large online samples in the United States and India: Facebook, mechanical turk, and qualtrics. Political Science Research and Methods, 8(2), 232–250. https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2018.28
9.
BullockJ. G.GreenD. P.HaS. E. (2010). Yes, but what’s the mechanism? (don’t expect an easy answer). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(4), 550–558. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018933
10.
ButlerM. H.Meloy-MillerK. C.SeedallR. B.DicusJ. L. (2018). Anger can help: A transactional model and three pathways of the experience and expression of anger. Family Process, 57(3), 817–835. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12311
11.
CallegaroM.MurakamiM. H.TepmanZ.HendersonV. (2015). Yes-no answers versus check-all in self-administered modes: A systematic review and analyses. International Journal of Market Research, 57(2), 203–224. https://doi.org/10.2501/IJMR-2015-014a
12.
ChanS. M. (2012). Links between Chinese mothers' parental beliefs and responses to children's expression of negative emotions. Early Child Development and Care, 182(6), 723–739. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2011.578742
13.
ChenF. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(3), 464–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701301834
14.
CraigL.PowellA.SmythC. (2014). Towards intensive parenting? Changes in the composition and determinants of mothers’ and fathers’ time with children 1992–2006. The British Journal of Sociology, 65(3), 555–579. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12035
15.
CrandallA.Deater-DeckardK.RileyA. W. (2015). Maternal emotion and cognitive control capacities and parenting: A conceptual framework. Developmental Review, 36, 105–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2015.01.004
16.
Del VecchioT.JablonkaO.DiGiuseppeR.NottiJ.DavidO. (2017). Psychometric evaluation of the parent anger scale. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(11), 3013–3025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0824-3
17.
DixT. (1991). The affective organization of parenting: Adaptive ad maladaptive processes. Psychological Bulletin, 110(1), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.110.1.3
18.
DucaD. S.UrsuA.BogdanI.RusuP. P. (2023). Emotions and emotion regulation in family relationships. Revista Romaneasca Pentru Educatie Multidimensionala, 15(2), 114–131. https://doi.org/10.18662/rrem/15.2/724
19.
EndersC. K.BandalosD. L. (2001). The relative performance of full information maximum likelihood estimation for missing data in structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 8(3), 430–457. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0803_5
20.
FabesR. A.EisenbergN.BernzweigJ. (1990). The coping with children’s Negative Emotions Scale: Procedures and scoring. Arizona State University.
21.
ForbesL. K.DonovanC.LamarM. R. (2020). Differences in intensive parenting attitudes and gender norms among US mothers. The Family Journal, 28(1), 63–71. https://doi.org./10.1177/1066480719893964
22.
ForbesL. K.LamarM. R.SpecialeM.DonovanC. (2022). Mothers’ and fathers’ parenting attitudes during COVID-19. Current Psychology: 470–479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01605-x
23.
GavitaO. A.DavidD.DigiuseppeR.DelVecchioT. (2011). The development and initial validation of the parent anger scale. Procedia- Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30, 505–511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.099
24.
HaysS. (1996). The cultural contradictions of motherhood. Yale University Press.
25.
HendersonA.HarmonS.NewmanH. (2016). The price mothers pay, even when they are not buying it: Mental health consequences of idealized motherhood. Sex Roles, 74(11-12), 512–526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0534-5
26.
HoffmanD. M. (2010). Risky investments: Parenting and the production of the ‘resilient child’. Health, Risk & Society, 12(4), 385–394. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698571003789716
27.
IllouzE. (2008). Saving the modern soul: Therapy, emotions, and the culture of self-help. University of California Press.
28.
IshizukaP. (2019). Social class, gender, and contemporary parenting standards in the United States: Evidence from a national survey experiment. Social Forces, 98(1), 31–58. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soy107
29.
JonesJ. D.BrettB. E.EhrlichK. B.LejuezC. W.CassidyJ. (2014). Maternal attachment style and responses to adolescents’ negative emotions: The mediating role of maternal emotion regulation. Parenting, 14(3-4), 235–257. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2014.972760
30.
KellyE. L.AmmonsS. K.ChermeckK.MoenP. (2010). Genders challenge, gendered response: Confronting the ideal worker norm in a white-collar organization. Gender & Society, 24(3), 281–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243210372073
31.
KellyJ. R.IannoneN. E.McCartyM. K. (2015). Emotional contagion of anger is automatic: An evolutionary explanation. British Journal of Social Psychology, 55(1), 182–191. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12134
32.
Klimor MamanS.KaplanD.OfferS. (2024). Going-with-the-flow” or “getting-things-done”: A folk model of intensive parenting among middle-class parents. Journal of Family Issues, 45(3), 697–719. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X231155658
33.
KlineR. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed). Guilford Press.
34.
KolkoD. J. (1996). Clinical monitoring of treatment course in child physical abuse: Psychometric characteristics and treatment comparisons. Child Abuse & Neglect, 20(1), 23–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134(95)00113-1
35.
LamarM. R.ForbesL. K.CapassoL. A. (2019). Helping working mothers face the challenges of an intensive mothering culture. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 41(3), 203–220. https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.41.3.02
36.
LeeE.MacvarishJ.BristowJ. (2010). Editorial: Risk, health, and parenting culture. Health, Risk and Society, 12(4), 293–300. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698571003789732
37.
LissM.SchiffrinH. H.MackintoshV. H.Miles-McLeanH.ErchullM. J. (2013). Development and validation of a quantitative measure of intensive parenting attitudes. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22(5), 621–636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9616-y
38.
Long, H., Prikhidko, A., Bendeck, A. C., & Yumusak, S. (2021). Measurement invariance of the intensive parenting attitudes questionnaire across gender and race. Journal of Family Psychology, 35(7), 1027–1032. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000889
39.
MahalikJ. R.TalmadgeW. T.LockeB. D.ScottR. P. (2005). Using the conformity to masculine norms inventory to work with men in a clinical setting. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61(6), 661–674. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20101
40.
MarshH. W.LüdtkeO.MuthénB.AsparaouhovT.MorinA. J. S.TrautweinU.NagengastB. (2010). A new look at the big five factor structure through exploratory structural equation modeling. Psychological Assessment, 22(3), 471–491. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019227
41.
MeeusenL.Van LaarC. (2018). Feeling pressure to be a perfect mother relates to parental burnout and career ambitions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, article 2113. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02113
42.
MeyerS.RaikesH. A.VirmaniE. A.WatersS.ThompsonR. A. (2014). Parent emotion representations and the socialization of emotion regulation in the family. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38(2), 164–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025413519014
43.
MikolajczakM.BriandaM. E.AvalosseH.RoskamI. (2018). Consequences of parental burnout: Its specific effect on child neglect and violence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 80, 134–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.03.025
44.
NovoaC.CovaF.NazarG.OlivaK.Vergara-BarraP. (2022). Intensive parenting: The risks of overdemanding. Trends in Psychology, 30(3), 1–14.
45.
PedersonD. E. (2012). The good mother, the good father, and the good parent: Gendered definitions of parenting. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 24(3), 230–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/08952833.2012.648141
46.
PeplauL. A. (1983). Roles and gender. In H. H. Kelley, et al. (Eds.), Close relationships (pp. 220–264). Freeman.
47.
PereiraA. I.BarrosL.RobertaM. S.MarquesT. (2017). Development of the parent emotion regulation scale (PERS): Factor structure and psychometric qualities. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(12), 3327–3338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0847-9
48.
PerepletchikovaF. (2018, October). DBT for pre-adolescent children: research, theory, and the nuts and bolts of practical application. In 65th annual meeting. AACAP.
49.
Perepletchikova, F., & Nathanson, D. (2020). Dialectical behavior therapy for pre-adolescent children: Addressing primary treatment targets. In L. A. Dimeff, S. Rizvi, & K. Koerner (Eds.), Dialectical behavior therapy in clinical practice (pp. 209–238). Guilford Press.
50.
PerepletchikovaF.NathansonD.AxelrodS. R.MerrillC.WalkerA.GrossmanM.RebetaJ.ScahillL.KaufmanJ.FlyeB.MauerE.WalkupJ. (2017). Randomized clinical trial of dialectical behavior therapy for preadolescent children with disruptive mood dysregulation disorder: Feasibility and outcomes. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(1), 832–840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.07.789
51.
PlickertG.PalsH. (2020). Parental anger and trajectories of emotional well-being from adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 30(2), 440–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12536
52.
Prikhidko, A. (2018). Emotion regulation among mothers of toddlers in the context of intensive mothering. University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. (Doctoral dissertation).
53.
Prikhidko, A., & Swank, J. M. (2019). Examining parent anger and emotion regulation in the context of intensive parenting. The Family Journal, 27(4), 366–372. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480719855371
54.
PrikhidkoA.SwankJ. M. (2020). Exhausted parents experience of anger: The relationship between anger and burnout. The Family Journal, 28(3), 283–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480720933543
55.
Prikhidko, A., Long, H., & Wheaton, M. G. (2020). The effect of concerns about COVID-19 on anxiety, stress, parental burnout, and emotion regulation: The role of susceptibility to digital emotion contagion. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, 567250. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.567250
56.
PrikhidkoA.PathiranaM.LongH.BendeckA. C.AcostaP. (2022). A qualitative exploration of maternal anxiety: Implications for helping professionals. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 26(12), 2444–2453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-022-03546-8
57.
RenkK.PharesV.EppsJ. (1999). The relationship between parental anger and behavior problems in children and adolescents. Journal of Family Psychology, 13(2), 209–227. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.13.2.209
58.
RizzoK. M.SchiffrinH. H.LissM. (2013). Insight into the parenthood paradox: Mental health outcomes of intensive mothering. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22(5), 614–620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9615-z
59.
RodriguezC. M.BakerL. R.PuD. F.TuckerM. C. (2017). Predicting parent-child aggression risk in mothers and fathers: Role of emotion regulation and frustration tolerance. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(9), 2529–2538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0764-y
60.
RodriguezC. M.GreenA. J. (1997). Parenting stress and anger expression as predictors of child abuse potential. Child Abuse & Neglect, 21(4), 367–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(96)00177-9
61.
RosseelY. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
62.
RothenbergW. A.WeinsteinA.DandesE. A.JentJ. F.RothenbergW. A.WeinsteinA.DandesE. A.JentJ. F. (2019). Improving child emotion regulation: Effects of parentchild interaction-therapy and emotion socialization strategies. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(3), 720–731. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1302-2
63.
RuckerD. D.PreacherK. J.TormalaZ. L.PettyR. E. (2011). Mediation analysis in social psychology: Current practices and new recommendations. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(6), 359–371. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00355.x
64.
Rutherford H. J., Wallace N. S., Laurent H. K., & Mayes L. C. (2015). Emotion regulation in parenthood. Developmental Review, 36, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2014.12.008
65.
SanfordK.RowattW. C. (2004). When is negative emotion positive for relationships? An investigation of married couples and roommates. Personal Relationships, 11(3), 329–354. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2004.00086.x
66.
SatorraA.BentlerP. M. (2001). A scaled difference chi-square test statistic for moment structure analysis. Psychometrika, 66(4), 507–514. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02296192
67.
ScheiblingC.MilkieM. A. (2023). Shifting toward intensive parenting culture? A comparative analysis of top mommy blogs and dad blogs. Family Relations, 72(2), 495–514. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12824
SchreiberJ. B.NoraA.StageF. K.BarlowE. A.KingJ. (2006). Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. The Journal of Educational Research, 99(6), 323–338. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.99.6.323-338
70.
ShiraniF. (2012). Meeting the challenges of intensive parenting culture: Gender, risk management, and the moral parent. Sociology, 46(1), 25–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038511416169
71.
SnyderJ.StoolmillerM.WilsonM.YamamotoM. (2003). Child anger regulation, parental responses to children's anger displays, and early child antisocial behavior. Social Development, 12(3), 335–360. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.t01-1-00237
72.
SpoorJ. R.KellyJ. R. (2009). Mood convergence in dyads: Effects of valence and leadership. Social Influence, 4(4), 282–297. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510902805366
73.
ThompsonR. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2–3), 25–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01276.x
ValenteM. J.GonzalezO.MiocevicM.MacKinnonD. P. (2016). A note on testing mediated effects in structural equation models: Reconciling past and current research on the performance of the test of joint significance. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 76(6), 889–911. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164415618992
76.
Van Wijk-HerbrinkM. F.LobbestaelJ.BernsteinD. P.BroersN. J.RoelofsJ.ArntzA. (2021). The influence of early maladaptive schemas on the causal links between perceived injustice, negative affect, and aggression. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 20(2), 133–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/14999013.2020.1842562
VigourouxS. L.ScolaC. (2018). Differences in parental burnout: Influence of demographic factors and personality of parents and children. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 887. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00887
79.
WallG. (2010, May). Mothers’ experiences with intensive parenting and brain development discourse. In Women's studies international forum (pp. 253–263). Pergamon.
80.
WallsJ. K.HelmsH. M.GrzywaczJ. G. (2016). Intensive mothering beliefs among full-time employed mothers of infants. Journal of Family Issues, 37(2), 245–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X13519254
81.
West-OlatunjiC.SandersT.MehtaS.Behar-HorensteinL. (2010). Parenting practices among low-income parents/guardians of academically successful fifth grade African American children. Multicultural Perspectives, 12(3), 138–144. http://doi.org/10.1080/15210960.2010.504475
82.
YerkesM. A.HopmanM.StokF. M.DeWitJ. (2021). In the best interests of children? The paradox of intensive parenting and children’s health. Critical Public Health, 31(3), 349–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2019.1690632
83.
YoungJ. E.KloskoJ. S.WeishaarM. E. (2003). Schema therapy: A practitioner’s guide. The Guilford Press.
84.
Zimmer-GembeckM. J.RudolphJ.KerinJ.Bohadana-BrownG. (2022). Parent emotional regulation: A meta-analytic review of its association with parenting and child adjustment. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 46(1), 63–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/01650254211051086
