Life-Course Perspective on Immigrant Loneliness: A Conceptual Framework for Intergenerational Loneliness Trajectories

Abstract

Feelings of loneliness can impact the relationships between the generations and family members. Loneliness among immigrant family members and its generational transmission are attracting more and more attention from academics. Nonetheless, existing research is frequently lacking theoretical foundations. I provide the life-course approach as a framework for enhancing future studies and theories of intergenerational loneliness in members of immigrant families. Particularly, the life-course perspective emphasizes the significance of considering the influence of both an individual's life course, societal factors, linked lives across generations, and the historical context. I review key dimensions of the life-course perspective and make recommendations for future directions in immigrant research on loneliness, generational loneliness disparities, and the transmission of loneliness across generations.

Keywords

cultural and ethnic minority family issues loneliness life-span development mental health refugee/immigrant families

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Ajrouch

K. J.

(2005). Arab-American immigrant elders’ views about social support. Ageing & Society, 25(5), 655–673. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X04002934

Ajrouch

K. J.

(2008). Social isolation and loneliness among Arab American elders: Cultural, social, and personal factors. Research in Human Development, 5(1), 44–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427600701853798

Akhter-Khan

S. C.

Prina

Wong

G. H. Y.

Mayston

(2022). Understanding and addressing older adults’ loneliness: The social relationship expectations framework. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 0(0), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221127218

Albert

(2021). Perceived loneliness and the role of cultural and intergenerational belonging: The case of Portuguese first-generation immigrants in Luxembourg. European Journal of Ageing, 18(3), 299–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-021-00617-7

Ariza

(2021). The sociology of emotions in Latin America. Annual Review of Sociology, 47, 157–175. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-021021-054653

Ayalon

Segel-Karpas

(2022). A life course, intergenerational perspective on loneliness. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 0(0), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/00914150221144234

Ayalon

Shiovitz-Ezra

Roziner

(2016). A cross-lagged model of the reciprocal associations of loneliness and memory functioning. Psychology and Aging, 31(3), 255–261. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000075

Bacallao

M. L.

Smokowski

P. R.

(2007). The costs of getting ahead: Mexican family system changes after immigration. Family Relations, 56(1), 52–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2007.00439.x

Boomsma

D. I.

Willemsen

Dolan

C. V.

Hawkley

L. C.

Cacioppo

J. T.

(2005). Genetic and environmental contributions to loneliness in adults: The Netherlands twin register study. Behavior Genetics, 35(6), 745–752. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10519-005-6040-8

10.

Breen

Hing

(2014). Life course analysis of gambling trajectories: An indigenous Australian study. International Gambling Studies, 14(3), 357–373. https://doi.org/10.1080/14459795.2014.891636

11.

Buecker

Denissen

J. J.

Luhmann

(2021). A propensity-score matched study of changes in loneliness surrounding major life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 121(3), 669–690. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000373

12.

Burke

T. J.

Woszidlo

Segrin

(2013). The intergenerational transmission of social skills and psychosocial problems among parents and their young adult children. Journal of Family Communication, 13(2), 77–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/15267431.2013.768247

13.

Cacioppo

J. T.

Fowler

J. H.

Christakis

N. A.

(2009). Alone in the crowd: The structure and spread of loneliness in a large social network. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(6), 977–991. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016076

14.

Castaneda

A. E.

Rask

Koponen

Suvisaari

Koskinen

Härkänen

Mannila

Laitinen

Jukarainen

Jasinskaja-Lahti

(2015). The association between discrimination and psychological and social well-being: A population-based study of Russian, Somali, and Kurdish migrants in Finland. Psychology and Developing Societies, 27(2), 270–292. https://doi.org/10.1177/0971333615594054

15.

Choudhry

U. K.

(2001). Uprooting and resettlement experiences of South Asian immigrant women. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 23(4), 376–393. https://doi.org/10.1177/019394590102300405

16.

Christakis

N. A.

Fowler

J. H.

(2013). Social contagion theory: Examining dynamic social networks and human behavior. Statistics in Medicine, 32(4), 556–577. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.5408

17.

Cifci

(2023). The comparison of relationship satisfaction in monocultural and intercultural couples. Open Access Library Journal, 10(8), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1110372

18.

Ciobanu

R. O.

Fokkema

(2021). What protects older Romanians in Switzerland from loneliness? A life-course perspective. European Journal of Ageing, 18(3), 323–331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-020-00579-2

19.

Ciobanu

R. O.

Fokkema

Nedelcu

(2017). Ageing as a migrant: Vulnerabilities, agency and policy implications. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 43(2), 164–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2016.1238903

20.

Coatsworth

J. D.

Pantin

Szapocznik

(2002). Familias unidas: A family-centered ecodevelopmental intervention to reduce risk for problem behavior among hispanic adolescents. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 5(2), 113–132. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015420503275

21.

Daniel

Ottemöller

F. G.

Katisi

Hollekim

Tesfazghi

Z. Z.

(2020). Intergenerational perspectives on refugee children and youth's adaptation to life in Norway. Population, Space and Place, 26(6), e2321. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.2321

22.

De Jong Gierveld

Tilburg

T. V.

(2006). A 6-item scale for overall, emotional, and social loneliness: Confirmatory tests on survey data. Research on Aging, 28(5), 582–598. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027506289723

23.

De Jong Gierveld

Van der Pas

Keating

(2015). Loneliness of older immigrant groups in Canada: Effects of ethnic-cultural background. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 30, 251–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10823-015-9265-x

24.

De Valk

Windzio

Wingens

Aybek

(2011). Immigrant settlement and the life course: An exchange of research perspectives and outlook for the future. In Wingens

de Valk

Windzio

Aybek

(Eds.), A life-course perspective on migration and integration (pp. 283–297). Springer. http://www.bookmetrix.com/detail/chapter/c2a5db94-681b-480b-a97d-044777ee50e5

25.

DiTommaso

Brannen-McNulty

Ross

Burgess

(2003). Attachment styles, social skills and loneliness in young adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 35(2), 303–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00190-3

26.

Dong

Chang

E. S.

Wong

Simon

(2012). Perception and negative effect of loneliness in a Chicago Chinese population of older adults. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 54(1), 151–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2011.04.022

27.

Dreby

(2015). U.S. immigration policy and family separation: The consequences for children's well-being. Social Science & Medicine, 132, 245–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.08.041

28.

Elder

G. H.

(1974). Children of the great depression. Univ. Chicago Press.

29.

Elder

G. H.

Jr (1998). The life course as developmental theory. Child Development, 69(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06128.x

30.

Elder

G. H.

Johnson

M. K.

Crosnoe

(2003). The emergence and development of life course theory. In Mortimer

J. T.

Shanahan

M. J.

(Eds.), Handbook of the life course (pp. 3–19). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-306-48247-2_1

31.

Evans

B. C.

Crogan

Belyea

Coon

(2009). Utility of the life course perspective in research with Mexican American caregivers of older adults. Journal of Transcultural Nursing: Official Journal of The Transcultural Nursing Society, 20(1), 5–14. https://www.doi.org/10.1177/1043659608325847

32.

Felsen

(2020). Patient and psychotherapist meeting in shared intergenerational transmission of genocidal trauma. Psychoanalysis, Self and Context, 15(2), 170–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/24720038.2019.1612405

33.

Fokkema

Ciobanu

R. O.

(2021). Older migrants and loneliness: Scanning the field and looking forward. European Journal of Ageing, 18(3), 291–297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-021-00646-2

34.

Foner

Dreby

(2011). Relations between the generations in immigrant families. Annual Review of Sociology, 37, 545–564. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-081309-150030

35.

Furstenberg

F. F.

(2005). Non-normative life course transitions: Reflections on the significance of demographic events on lives. Advances in Life Course Research, 10, 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1040-2608(05)10005-7

36.

George

L. K.

(1993). Sociological perspectives on life transitions. Annual Review of Sociology, 19(1), 353–373. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2083392

37.

Graham

Thurston

(2005). Overcoming adversity: Resilience & coping mechanisms developed by recent immigrant women living in the inner city of Calgary, Alberta. Women's Health and Urban Life, 4(1), 63–80. https://hdl.handle.net/1807/4265

38.

Hagestad

G. O.

Dykstra

(2016). Structuration of the life course: Some neglected aspects. In Shanahan

M. J.

, et al. (Ed.) Handbook of the life course (Vol. II, pp. 131–157). Springer Science.

39.

Hawkley

L. C.

Cacioppo

J. T.

(2010). Loneliness matters: A theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 40(2), 218–227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-010-9210-8

40.

Hawkley

L. C.

Thisted

R. A.

Cacioppo

J. T.

(2009). Loneliness predicts reduced physical activity: Cross-sectional & longitudinal analyses. Health Psychology, 28(3), 354–363. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014400

41.

Henwood

P. G.

Solano

C. H.

(1994). Loneliness in young children and their parents. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 155(1), 35–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.1994.9914756

42.

Hernandez

D. J.

Charney

National Research Council . (Eds.). (1998). Children in immigrant families. In From generation to generation: The health and well-being of children in immigrant families. National Academies Press (US).

43.

Hernandez

McGoldrick

(1999). Migration and the family life cycle. In Carter

McGoldrick

(Eds.), The expanded family life cycle: Individual, family, and social perspectives (3rd ed, pp. 169–184). Allyn & Bacon.

44.

Holt-Lunstad

Smith

T. B.

Baker

Harris

Stephenson

(2015). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: A meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 227–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614568352

45.

Holvast

Burger

de Waal

M. M.

van Marwijk

H. W.

Comijs

H. C.

Verhaak

P. F.

(2015). Loneliness is associated with poor prognosis in late-life depression: Longitudinal analysis of The Netherlands study of depression in older persons. Journal of Affective Disorders, 185, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.06.036

46.

Jakobsson

Hallberg

I. R.

(2005). Loneliness, fear, and quality of life among elderly in Sweden: A gender perspective. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 17, 494–501. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03327417

47.

Junttila

Vauras

Laakkonen

(2007). The role of parenting self-efficacy in childrenś social and academic behavior. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 22(1), 41–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03173688

48.

Karantzas

G. C.

Simpson

J. A.

(2022). Separation, social isolation, and loss in the context of COVID-19 and beyond. Current Opinion in Psychology, 47, 101400. https://www.doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101400

49.

Lam

Dickson

Baxter

(2022). Ageing and loneliness: A life course and cumulative disadvantage approach. In Family dynamics over the life course: Foundations, turning points and outcomes (pp. 279–296). Springer International Publishing.

50.

Lee

B. K.

(2014). Towards a relational framework for pathological gambling (part I): Five circuits. Journal of Family Therapy, 36(4), 371–393. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6427.2012.00588.x

51.

Lee

Hong

Zhou

Robles

(2020). The relationships between loneliness, social support, and resilience among Latinx immigrants in the United States. Clinical Social Work Journal, 48, 99–109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-019-00728-w

52.

Leong

F. T.

Eggerth

D. E.

Flynn

M. A.

(2014). A life course perspective on immigrant occupational health and well-being. Contemporary Occupational Health Psychology: Global Perspectives on Research and Practice, 3, 97–113. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118713860.ch7

53.

Liu

B. S.

Rook

K. S.

(2013). Emotional and social loneliness in later life: Associations with positive versus negative social exchanges. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 30(6), 813–832. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407512471809

54.

Liu

Lou

Mui

A. C. Y. S.

(2021a). I’ve been always strong to conquer any suffering:” challenges and resilience of Chinese American dementia caregivers in a life course perspective. Aging & Mental Health, 25(9), 1716–1724. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2020.1793900

55.

Liu

Zheng

Wang

(2021b). Intergenerational transmission of anxiety in Chinese migrant families: The mediating role of parents’ perceptions of coparenting. Journal of Affective Disorders, 280, 287–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.10.069

56.

Luo

(2021). An exploratory study through a life course perspective: Gambling among older Chinese people in a Canadian context. Ageing International, 46(3), 253–284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12126-020-09383-w

57.

Mund

Lüdtke

Neyer

F. J.

(2020). Owner of a lonely heart: The stability of loneliness across the life span. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), 497–516. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000262

58.

Nguyen

Lee

(2012). Asian immigrants’ mental health service use: An application of the life course perspective. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 3(1), 53–63. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026865

59.

Nguyen

H. T.

Baldassar

Wilding

(2022). Life course transitions: How ICTS support older migrants’ adaptation to transnational lives. Social Inclusion, 10(4), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.17645/si.v10i4.5735

60.

Parreñas

R. S.

(2005). Children of global migration: Transnational families and gendered woes. Stanford University Press.

61.

Perlman

Peplau

L. A.

(1981). Toward a social psychology of loneliness. In Gilmour

Duck

(Eds.), Personal relationships 3: Relationships in disorder (pp. 31–56). Academic Press.

62.

Pottie

Dahal

Georgiades

Premji

Hassan

(2015). Do first generation immigrant adolescents face higher rates of bullying, violence and suicidal behaviours than do third generation and native born? Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 17, 1557–1566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-014-0108-6

63.

Rashid

(2011). “Loneliness is killing me":Llife stories and resilience of Canadian immigrant women [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Lethbridge.

64.

Remennick

(2003). Retired and making a fresh start: Older Russian immigrants discuss their adjustment in Israel. International Migration, 41(5), 153–175. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0020-7985.2003.00264.x

65.

Rokach

(2002). Determinants of loneliness of young adult drug users. The Journal of Psychology, 136(6), 613–630. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980209604823

66.

Roy

K. M.

& Settersten

R. A.

Jr (2022). The family life course framework: Perspectives on interdependent lives and inequality. In Adamsons

Few-Demo

A. L.

Proulx

Roy

(Eds.), Sourcebook of family theories and methodologies: A dynamic approach (pp. 287–307). Springer International Publishing.

67.

Sam

D. L.

Virta

(2003). Intergenerational value discrepancies in immigrant and host-national families and their impact on psychological adaptation. Journal of Adolescence, 26(2), 213–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-1971(02)00129-X

68.

Sedikides

Wildschut

(2022). Nostalgia across cultures. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology, 16, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/18344909221091649

69.

Shiovitz-Ezra

Ayalon

(2010). Situational versus chronic loneliness as risk factors for all-cause mortality. International Psychogeriatrics, 22(3), 455–462. https://www.doi.org/10.1017/S1041610209991426

70.

Stambulova

N. B.

(2017). Crisis-transitions in athletes: Current emphases on cognitive and contextual factors. Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 62–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.04.013

71.

Stick

Hou

Kaida

(July 28, 2021). Self-reported Loneliness Among Recent Immigrants, Long-term Immigrants, and Canadian-born Individuals. Statistics Canada = Statistique Canada. https://doi.org/10.25318/36280001202100700001-eng

72.

Syed

(2022). An intersectional theoretical framework for exploring racialized older immigrant women’s subjectivities. Journal of Social Work, 22(2), 440–459. https://doi.org/10.1177/14680173211008426

73.

Szapocznik

Kurtines

W. M.

Fernandez

(1980). Bicultural involvement and adjustment in Hispanic-American youths. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 4(3–4), 353–365. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(80)90010-3

74.

Szapocznik

Rio

Perez-Vidal

Kurtines

Hervis

Santisteban

(1986). Bicultural effectiveness training (BET): An experimental test of an intervention modality for families experiencing intergenerational/intercultural conflict. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 8(4), 303–330. https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863860084001

75.

Ten Kate

R. L.

Bilecen

Steverink

(2020). A closer look at loneliness: Why do first-generation migrants feel more lonely than their native Dutch counterparts? The Gerontologist, 60(2), 291–301. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnz192

76.

Thyli

Hedelin

Athlin

(2014). Experiences of health and care when growing old in Norway - from the perspective of elderly immigrants with minority ethnic backgrounds. Clinical Nursing Studies, 2(3), 52–63. https://doi.org/10.5430/cns.v2n3p52

77.

Timberlake

E. M.

Farber

M. Z.

Wall

S. M.

Taylor

N. E.

Sabatino

C. A.

(2003). Resettlement challenges in the “land of opportunity”: The experience of economically disadvantaged immigrant women. Social Thought, 22(4), 75–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/15426432.2003.9960358

78.

Torres

J. M.

Young

M. E. D.

(2016). A life-course perspective on legal status stratification and health. SSM-population Health, 2, 141–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2016.02.011

79.

Wagner

Voelkle

M. C.

Hoppmann

C. A.

Luszcz

M. A.

Gerstorf

(2018). We are in this together: Dyadic patterns of self-esteem change in late-life couples. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 42(1), 34–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025416679742

80.

Walle

E. A.

Dukes

(2023). We (still!) need to talk about valence: Contemporary issues and recommendations for affective science. Affective Science, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-023-00217-x

81.

Weng

S. S.

(2019). An Asian American community intergenerational response to older adult isolation and loneliness. Journal of Intergenerational Relationships, 17(3), 257–272. https://doi.org/10.1080/15350770.2019.1617591

82.

Penning

(2015). Immigration and loneliness in later life. Ageing & Society, 35(1), 64–95. https://www.doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X13000470

83.

Yanguas

Pinazo-Henandis

Tarazona-Santabalbina

F. J.

(2018). The complexity of loneliness. Acta Bio Medica: Atenei Parmensis, 89(2), 302–314. https://www.doi.org/10.23750/abm.v89i2.7404

84.

Young

J. E.

(1982). Loneliness, depression and cognitive therapy: Theory and application. In Peplau

L. A.

Perlman

(Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy (pp. 379–406). Wiley.

85.

Zhao

(2020). Identifying and addressing loneliness among Chinese late-life immigrants in New Zealand [Doctoral dissertation]. Auckland University of Technology.