Missing Moments and Requesting Encouragement: The Experiences and Consequences of Having an Incarcerated Loved One

Abstract

The consequences of incarceration extend far beyond the individual incarcerated. This article aims to understand the needs, thoughts, feelings, and experiences of incarcerated loved ones through the uses-and gratifications theory. Posts derived from the Facebook group entitled, “Incarcerated Loved Ones” and were coded using thematic analysis. The posts highlighted two themes: negative emotional experiences and criminal justice consequences. The theme negative emotional experiences included feelings of discomfort, requesting encouragement, and venting. The theme criminal justice consequences included difficulty navigating the system, visitation, financial burden, and missing moments. The discussion includes clinical and policy implications as well as future research directions.

One of the most prominent necessities of romantic partners of incarcerated individuals is having support from their incarcerated partner. In addition to individuals detained in military prisons, civil commitment centers, state psychiatric hospitals, and prisons in the U.S. territories, the U.S. criminal justice system currently has nearly two million people imprisoned within 82 Indian country jails, 102 federal prisons, 186 immigration detention facilities, 1,510 juvenile correctional facilities, 1,566 state prisons, and 2,850 local jails (Sawyer & Wagner, 2022). This article aims to understand the needs, thoughts, feelings, and experiences of incarcerated loved ones through the uses-and gratifications theory. This theory concentrates on the motivations for social media usage to satisfy their various necessities and, eventually, the gratification received from the usage.

Impacts of Incarceration

In 2023, the Sentencing Project launched a campaign entitled “50 Years and a Wake Up” to highlight the use of mass incarceration for the last half century (The Sentencing Project, 2023). Throughout these last several decades, data exploring the impact of incarceration has highlighted its negative mental and physical health effects for those behind bars, and their romantic partners, family units, and communities (Durante et al., 2022; McKay et al., 2018; Tadros & Ansell, 2022; Tadros et al., 2020; Tadros & Gregorash, 2022; Tadros & Vlach, 2022). The stress connected with the isolation of imprisonment can produce trauma (Alves et al., 2016; Folk et al., 2019;Yi et al., 2017), and the physical separation of incarceration, exacerbated by costly phone calls and visits, can increase stress for all those connected to the criminal legal system (Tadros et al., 2020). In addition, the strain caused by separation may induce negative emotions, including feeling isolated (Tadros, Presley et al., 2022), sad, and hopeless (Tadros & Presley, 2022).

The potency of these negative effects, however, is found to be assuaged through the maintenance of social connections (Folk et al., 2019). Literature finds, when incarcerated individuals maintain healthy connections, including romantic relationships, it lessens prison misconduct (Cochran, 2012) and facilitates a prosperous reentry by aiding with basic needs, such as employment, finances, and housing (Folk et al., 2019). Additionally, when couples experiencing incarceration are able to maintain open communication, emotional support, and understanding, feelings of loneliness decrease, leading to lower rates of engagement in that which is deemed criminal, and better mental health outcomes for both the incarcerated and nonincarcerated partners (DeClaire et al., 2020; Morgan et al., 2018; Turney, 2015; Wyse et al., 2014).

Addressing the Needs of Loved Ones of Incarcerated Individuals

Incarceration creates a multitude of negative impacts on partners and children of the incarcerated (Durante et al., 2023; Tadros, Fahmy et al., 2023). Oftentimes, children and family members experience concerns regarding both their physical and mental health, such as stress-induced health conditions, anxiety, and depression (Cassidy et al., 2010; Dolwick Grieb et al., 2014; Kamptner et al., 2017; Provenchera & Conway, 2019; Tadros, Durante et al., 2022; Tadros, Durante et al., 2022). Additionally, the displacement of incarceration can lead to a tumultuous relationship for parents, as these relationships often result in higher academic punishment for teenage children compared to children who have separated and never re-coupled parents (Turney & Halpern-Meekin, 2020). There are also socioeconomic factors to consider such as nonincarcerated partners needing to take on additional jobs to make up for lost income, and rely on external sources for support (Bruns, 2020; Dolwick Grieb et al., 2014). Furthermore, families of incarcerated individuals often live in low-income, high crime areas, which can lead to an increase in risk for later incarceration of children. Thus creating a vicious cycle of health, economic, academic, emotional, and relational turmoil.

Given the array of needs from the loved ones of incarcerated populations, it is critical to look at how professionals can address these systemic concerns. It seems the most glaring need to be addressed is one regarding mental health services to combat mental health issues and relationship concerns. Oftentimes, families of incarcerated individuals struggle to find the necessary support (Dolwick Grieb et al., 2014). Lastly, given that every case of incarceration impacts vary differently from family to community, it should be noted that treating each circumstance as such can promote individual needs being addressed more thoroughly and effectively (Shalfer & Poehlmann, 2010).

Within Uses and Gratifications Theory

The uses-and gratifications theory focuses on the motivations for social media usage as means of fulfillment (Chung, 2014). This theory is based on individuals’ use of social media to fulfill different needs that they have and ultimately the gratification received from usage (Whiting & Williams, 2013). Studies have shown that the gratification one receives from social media usage is a strong predictor of future social media use (Whiting & Williams, 2013). This framework is particularly important for understanding what motivates individuals’ use of online support groups. The Papacharissi and Rubin (2000) framework is focused on uses and gratifications related to the Internet, as it identifies five main reasons for why individuals access social media including information seeking, entertainment, convenience, passing time, and interpersonal unity. Interpersonal unity included reasons such as to assist others, to participate in discussion, or to belong to a group (Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000). Within uses and gratifications theory, interpersonal unity is found to be a main motive for internet usage. This factor directly relates to social support found within social media, as it emphasizes the social support-related motivations for individuals engaging in Internet usage.

Technology has modernized communication methods for incarcerated individuals as social networking sites facilitate those impacted by incarceration to sustain interpersonal relationships (Özad & Uygarer, 2014). How individuals encounter their emotions is vital in adapting to adverse experiences (Shallcross et al., 2010). The uses and gratification theory supports the concept that media is employed to fulfill one's social and psychological requirements (Özad & Uygarer, 2014).

Current Study

The aim of this study is to highlight both the needs of Loved Ones of Incarcerated Individuals (LOIs), as stated by LOIs themselves, as well as to understand the ways LOIs provide support and advocate for one another. With these examples, professionals working with this population can obtain a more holistic picture of the LOI experience to become better advocates and identify strengths to leverage in their work together. The themes focused on in this article are negative emotional experiences and criminal justice consequences, with each theme parsed into multiple codes. These two themes focus on specific negative emotions that are experienced due to a loved one being incarcerated, as well as the consequences of incarceration on the family system, through secondary burdens such as financial consequences.

Methods

Participants

The data was collected from posts on an online Facebook group entitled, “Incarcerated Loved Ones,” that consists of 16.5k members. The group intends to provide encouragement, advocate for reform, and inform members on issues related to the criminal legal process (Tadros, Henson et al., 2023; Tadros, Presley et al., 2023). This is a closed group and to become a member, individuals must be approved after answering two questions: (1) Do you agree to read & follow the rules? and (2) Do you have an incarcerated loved one and if not why do you wish to join? All members must agree to five rules which include being kind and courteous, no promoting or selling, respecting the privacy of members, no profanity, and no asking for money.

Data Collection Procedures

Institutional Review Board approval was granted as well as permission from the group's administrator. The data was collected between July 1 and October 1, 2021 from individual Facebook posts from a group on the platform called “Incarcerated Loved Ones.” Then, the information was input into an excel sheet. This time frame was chosen due to the recency of the posts, as data collection began during that period. A total of 441 posts were obtained out of over a thousand posts due to inclusion criteria. Then from there, four posts were eliminated as from admin restrictions which stated: “…Please refrain from using profanity (f bombs), bullying others, and posting inmate information (pen pal requests). These are just SOME of the things we do not allow.” Our n = 437, which included pictures or images that were categorized by describing the content of the image or picture.

Keywords were constructed, based on the identified manners in which members sough support. The keywords used were “need,” “should,” “hope,” “suggest,” “want,” and “question.” The posts were then counted based on keywords, with need (n = 151), should (n = 40), hope (n = 67), suggest (n = 11), want (n = 98), and question (n = 70). For some posts, there were multiple keywords that were applicable, for example one post could include both “need” and “hope” and therefore was counted as both. These duplicates were counted with want (n = 73), hope (n = 25), should (n = 14), need (n = 10), question (n = 31), and suggest (n = 3). The keywords encompassed more than just a single word to include colloquial language, for example “hope” included hopefully, hoping, hopeful, hopes, and hopeless. Some posts consisted of multiple keywords, as often multiple were applied for a single post. The theme, negative emotional experiences had a total of 152 posts and the theme of criminal justice consequences had a total of 40.

Analytic Strategy: Thematic Analysis

Thematic analysis is a fundamental approach in qualitative research that identifies themes in both single interviews, or sets of interviews (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Vaismoradi et al., 2013). The purpose of utilizing this approach is to create more pliable sets of descriptive data to yield results, by examining narrative data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). For our study, thematic analysis seemed to be the best approach, as there was a hyperfocus on the similarities between each data piece (i.e., individual posts). Thus, we were able to gather datasets that were personal and conducive, as it is reflective of participant's views. Suggesting that solutions can be tailored to individual needs. Once we had all of the relevant needs-related posts compiled into a document, we uploaded the document into ATLAS.ti, a qualitative analysis software. Once in ATLAS, we open-coded each post, synthesizing the content of the post into one or two words. This process resulted in six codes. We then organized the codes by subject, which resulted in two main themes: negative emotional experiences and criminal justice consequences.

Results

It is important to note that each quoted post is in its original form, that which was posted within the Facebook group, other than condensing and redacted language to protect individual members' anonymity. As part of qualitative research, it is crucial to keep authentic language so that the individuals’ own voices are heard (Sutton & Austin, 2015). The posts highlighted two themes: negative emotional experiences and criminal justice consequences. Embedded within the theme negative emotional experiences are the codes: feelings of discomfort, requesting encouragement, and venting. Embedded within the theme criminal justice consequences are the codes: difficulty navigating the system, visitation, financial burden, and missing moments. The results below will be presented by theme and include a discussion of the embedded codes.

Negative Emotional Experiences

Individuals with an incarcerated loved one often experience emotions that are negative in nature, as this experience can be overwhelming. Within this Facebook group, these negative emotional experiences were shared with other members, as a way to seek out encouragement from sharing, as well as just to vent and express these emotions out in a safe and supportive place. The codes: feelings of discomfort, requesting encouragement, and venting will all be discussed.

Feelings of discomfort

Individuals with an incarcerated loved one shared various posts that indicated the feelings of discomfort surrounding their loved one's incarceration. These feelings ranged in terms of negative emotions such as frustration, pain, sadness, and hopelessness. One member shared,

I am beyond frustrated and feel defeated. My son was beaten up in jail back in April.

He had several broken bones in his face, he also had a torn muscle in his eye. He was

directed at the emergency room that he needed to be seen by a specialist within a week. 6 weeks later when he was seen and the doctor said the bones in his face had already started healing. It was too late to do anything about his eye and there was a 50/50 chance that he could loose vision in his eye. The also found out that his nose was badly broken and there was problems with the septum. He was supposed to have surgery today but evidently it was cancelled because the doctor was stranded somewhere by the hurricane. His lawyer has been trying to push this through so he can get his surgery done by a good specialist before his sentencing. It seems like we are taking no steps forward they have all been backwards.

Another individual shared, “Please keep your los close because you never know when the lord is ready to take them home. I lost my best friend and soul mate my back bone Saturday I’m so lost without him I cry alot I miss him so much and I hope he can hear me talking too him if I could have one more day with him.” One individual with an incarcerated loved one posted, “Ya’ll im so upset i told my husband i’m not feeling well at al. All he asked was ‘can you put money on the phone and answer the questions in the letters’ like I get he wants to talk but he didn’t even ask what was wrong or if im doing any better.” Individuals expressed frustration, as one shared,

Girls I’m so frustrated, they still haven’t given my dad the prescription glasses, which I sent via zenni, nor do they give him new prescription glasses from jail. Nobody does anything, I don’t know what else to do. Yesterday I sent a letter to the warden, also to the health administrator, my dad did the same from the inside and sent a bp8. I don’t know if I should have a lawyer…what do you girls recommend? He is practically legally blind without glasses.

Requesting encouragement

Individuals in the group in sharing negative emotional experiences, also turn to one another to ask for encouraging words or support as they experience these difficult times. Often, there are limited individuals in their life who can provide adequate encouragement, and other members in the group have shared life experiences, bonding these individuals. One group member shared, “Asking for prayer for my LO. He's struggling again. He needs strength to persevere. And peace. Thank you.” Another group member posted, “I need many prayers as we go to my daughter's preliminary hearing today. I’m so nervous it's unreal”. An individual stated, “Hi I’m kinda new here & was just kind of needing someone to talk to that understands. My husband is in jail & while I’m not new to this type of thing, I’m not good at it either. Maybe someone that has a husband incarcerated could message me? I promise I’m not weird haha.” One group member shared,

Hello! I'm new to this. My boyfriend is incarcerated in Florida and I'm in Michigan. He's been gone since just after I found out I was pregnant (5 weeks) and now she's 4 weeks old. It's been rough with him gone mentally, physically, emotionally, and financially. He just got sentenced to 18 months which is a total miracle because the state wanted 5 years. He's got a few months before he'll meet our daughter and I'm nervous and excited. We've not been together very long but neither of us has felt like this about anyone. I just worry that his past will continue to haunt our future. He's an addict and he was originally incarcerated because he relapsed here in Michigan. He had a warrant we wanted to take care of in Florida but I had found out I was pregnant so we didn't know what to do. That was forced when he relapsed and caught charges here. When he gets back he'll have a year of probation here which worries me. He's also a felon now so jobs may be tricky… I'm really just looking for some encouraging stories and support and I'm willing to offer support in return.

Venting

Individuals within the Facebook group often engaged in venting, which is talking to individuals as a means of sharing what you are experiencing, often to get it off your chest, without looking for direct advice. One member posted,

Sorry just need to vent. So I’m pretty close to the end of my pregnancy and I had a video chat set up with my man tonight and they canceled it due to a transfer or release.

No one will tell me anything…I mean maybe it's a good thing but I really wanted to see him today and now I’m super emotional:(sorry for the rant! But besides you guys no one in my family understands why I chose to stay.

Another individual shared,

I hate having to make big life decisions somewhat alone. I have been offered a new job but it means leaving a stable job of 12 years that has recently been more stressful than enjoyable. If he was out and working I'd jump on this chance without a second thought but since its just me holding it down it's scary to start something new. We have discussed it on the phone but those 15 minutes just aren't enough time especially since there are are things we want to talk about too. I'd love nothing more than to have an uninterrupted conversation over dinner with him. He's great at helping me work through tough decisions. My family and friends are helpful as well but he just understands me more than anyone.

One Facebook group member stated,

I’m road tripping to see my man at the end of the month. I’m driving from Indiana to New Hampshire. I booked my hotel which is 15 minutes away from him and planned what I’m going to be doing for the weekend. Our visit has been approved and scheduled! I didn’t hear from him until 9:30 last night and he was frantic. They’re transferring him to a different prison over two hours away. First of all, I’m heartbroken for him because he just moved to the wellness unit and was doing amazing in his new groups, was back with his old friends and having a great time reuniting with them, and now they’re moving him and he has to start all over again. I’m also frustrated that they can even do that when someone has an out of state visitor coming in the next couple of weeks. I just needed to rant. I’m feeling really frustrated and defeated right now. Thank you for listening!

Criminal Justice Consequences

There are numerous collateralconsequences of being incarcerated that extend to the family system, which individuals discuss often within the Facebook group. These consequences are just as detrimental, and create long-term impacts on those who have a loved one incarcerated. The codes: difficulty navigating the system, visitation, financial burden, and missing moments will all be discussed.

Difficulty navigating System

For those with an incarcerated loved one, there are numerous challenges and barriers that arise in navigating the criminal justice system. There is often nowhere to turn within the criminal justice system for support or assistance with these questions, which is a reason as to why peer support is so crucial, as there is no formal support for individuals with a loved one incarcerated. One group member shared, “How does one get thru this especially with kids it hard enough that the system just throws whatever they want to at our lo???”. Another individual posted,

My son is finally out on bond with house arrest that I get to pay for. He can’t work, among other things, but I am happy that he is finally out of jail. Something really needs to be done about Pre-trial confinement. I am thankful for the safe space this group allows me to have. Thank you all for your stories, as you motivate me more than you know.

Visitation

The process of visitation is often confusing and costly. Individuals within the group often asked questions about the visitation process, as well as shared tips or helpful pieces of information that assisted them when they visited their loved one. One member asked, “Anyone on here a Type 1 diabetic that wears an insulin pump and a CGM? This is my first time going through this whole process and when time comes for visitation I want to be as prepared as possible if there are any extra steps I need to take.” Another group member asked, “Is there anyone who has a loved one at Florence federal prison in Colorado? I have some questions about visitation.” An individual posted,

Good evening everyone. So I'm seeing my fiance next week for the first time since he's been booked. I just wanted to know what is appropriate to wear for a contact visit? I know not leggings or anything tight but I'm just worried I'll bring the wrong clothes. Thanks in advance.

Another group member posted,

My ex hus + band is in county jail and he wants me to bring his kids to see him. He has been in there 3 weeks today. Anyways can anyone give me advice on this. My kids are 4 and 2. My 4 y/o knows his dad is in jail but is scared to go see him. (He is afraid he is going to jail) I try to explain that he would be going there and leaving but he isn't going to understand. I think it's better to take them now rather than later. Any advice will help.

Financial burden

Incarceration creates a financial burden on the loved one and family members, as well as adds additional costs, such as visitation, phone calls, and commissary money. Members in the group often discussed the finances of incarceration, such as the struggles with their loved one wanting additional funds, as well as the burden of their own finances. One member shared,

Ladies, remember one thing. When you are making comments on someone else's post about money they give their LO and say things like he wants money he can earn it in there. Way too many states do not pay inmates for jobs, they work them Sun up to Sun down and they dont earn a single cent! And there are very few LEGAL ways for them to earn! So before you look down on a female for being upset at not having money on the phone or for his books, remember everyones situation is NOT the same.

Another group member posted,

Just when I think things couldn’t get worse I’m figuring out my LO IS using some of the $$ I send hi to run a store which I knew m, but he sends that $$ to his bm and his kids now she's going on vacation and I found out because he was asking me to text this number about a cashapp fir his “friend” next his mom messaged me wanting to make sure she setup her cashapp right…I’m beyond mad…while I’m out here working my butt off sending him $$ he sends it to his fam heck with me smh why am I so dumb? I’m bout to confront him when he calls me after count…it’ll probably be over cuz apparently he never really loved me I was just a damn cash cow…I thought we were different because we were together before he went in…well we shall see what he has to say it may be the end of the road for me ladies…stay tuned.

One individual shared,

I recieved a call from my LO not just to chat but to take a min to thank me and all that I do for her…I am raising her 2 children (she asked probate judge before she was sentence to give me custody of her kids) which he gave her huge kuddos for doing that bc his court room is full due to too many grandparents/or other family members not knowing what to do or if they can even get the children…She thanked me and she said she knows I put things on hold and make/made sacrifices to raise her kids while she was away…not only financial part of it all that it takes to raise kids…they aren't cheap lol.

Missing moments

During incarceration, there are many moments that are missed due to the physical distance, and often the emotional distance as well. Members within the group often shared how their incarcerated loved one missed moments in their life and how this impacted them. One individual shared,

video shared: Every night before bed we talk with the kids about random things, well last night they got on the subject of some Of the experiences we faced at visitation over the 6 years my son was in, I took a video of sound only & wanted to share it with you! Many of you will definitely be able to relate! So here goes check it out! Visits from kids perspective!

Another individual shared,

I love my bf, and I know the reality of this situation. It won’t be easy, but i know we both can do it. Before he went in, we were getting ready to move in together and would’ve been engaged this fall. He's the best person I know, and I don’t want to throw that away. I don’t feel like I’m making a sacrifice or putting my life on hold. I’m just holding it down from outside while he's locked up.

One group member posted,

Ladies my baby totally surprised me today. My birthday was last Thursday and he told me he wished he could send me something and I told him I don't want you to send me anything I just want you home he said I know babe we have less then 5 months boo. So I pull up to the house today and these are sitting on my porch and 10 mins after I walk in he calls and I said babe he said are you crying I said yes he said why I said you know why and he said so you got my surprise today then. He already does so much for me and the kids but he constantly makes sure that I know he loves me every single day. This man is my whole heart I can not wait till he's back home!

Discussion

This study aids in the understanding of the role of social support that is both received and shared across members of the Facebook group Inmate Support State & Federal (Incarcerated Loved Ones). The theme negative emotional experiences consisted of discomfort, requesting encouragement, and venting. These feelings ranged in terms of negative emotions such as frustration, pain, sadness, and hopelessness. It was not surprising that having a loved one involved in the criminal justice system would bring upon less desirable emotions, however, it is vital to note the type of emotional experience and what is being requested from these individuals in order to cope with them. A common theme identified utilizing this group was seeking connection (Tadros, Henson et al., 2023). Our study found that group members also utilized the space to vent. Venting can reduce stress and be utilized as a coping mechanism (Rimé, 2009). Engaging in venting allows group members to express themselves in a safe and secure setting where others will not be judgmental. It appears as though this was a safe place for the loved ones to do so. Social support groups during this time can help others by providing an environment to a stigmatized group of individuals and share their experiences, resources, and how they deal with certain situations (McLeod, 2020). In some cases, how life is once an incarcerated loved one returns home. Individuals returning from incarceration often rely on social support, specifically family members in order to re-adjust to society (Charles et al., 2019; La Vigne et al., 2005; Naser & La Vigne, 2006).

The theme criminal justice consequences consisted of members discussing their difficulty navigating the system, visitation challenges, financial burdens, and the moments they were missing. Prior researchers have stressed the importance of visitation and consistent contact with family members to support incarcerated parents best. Bales and Mears (2008) studied about 7,000 individuals held in state prison for at least 1 year. Those who had experienced a visitation from loved ones during their incarceration were less likely to recidivate within the first 2 years of their experiences post release. Beckmeyer and Arditti (2014) explain that better-quality in-person visits foster better parenting skills, decrease stress, and strengthen familial relationships. Maintaining contact with family members leads to increased job opportunities and involvement with their children post release (Folk et al., 2019). Further results include a decreased likelihood of experiencing depression, substance abuse, and opportunities to recidivate (Folk et al., 2019).

As the literature has demonstrated, maintaining contact during incarceration between the incarcerated individual and their families and loved ones yields positive outcomes both during and after incarceration (Folk et al., 2019). Systemic policy changes to assist in maintaining this contact should include phone calls that are available and accessible for those with an incarcerated loved one, as the cost of maintaining relationships is a barrier. Additionally, mental health professionals, both within correctional facilities, as well as in the community should aim to be knowledgeable and educated on working with incarcerated families, and the barriers as well as unique perspectives that these individuals have to maintain ties while also working through individual challenges. There is often no navigation assistance for those with an incarcerated loved one, which could be mitigated by having a role within the court system that is a member of the public defender's office and can provide information to an individual's family as they move through the court and incarceration process. The changes needed in policy would have widespread impacts for incarcerated loved one's and their families, as well as the broader community. Finally, a focus on intersectionality when engaging with those incarcerated as well as advocating for services needed has implications for outcomes that adequately address the layering needs of those incarcerated and their loved ones (Batastini et al., 2022).

Positive reentry outcomes, especially good mental health, and any changes in familial support should be positive in general, or at the very least result in less negative familial dynamics (Wallace et al., 2016). Additionally, the romantic relationship between an incarcerated individual and their partner can come with many challenges especially post release. To mitigate these challenges we offer clinical recommendations. Clinical implications from our findings include an awareness and understanding of the challenges and struggles LOIs face as well as the strengths of these individuals. The most prevalent types of clinical services available for incarcerated individuals are typically individual and group therapy (Magaletta et al., 2011). However, marriage and family therapists (MFTs) and other mental health professionals are encouraged to provide systemic services. MFTs can aid in the telling of untold stories as well as repair attachment injuries that have worsened through incarceration (Tadros & Gregorash, 2022). To help individuals experiencing negative emotions, community mental health professionals should explore support groups to allow spaces for community support of other individuals experiencing similar life circumstances with incarceration.

With the rise of telehealth services post-COVID-19, both incarcerated and nonincarcerated individuals can receive virtual marriage and family services, with a focus on Emotion Focused Therapy, to address the emotional concerns and needs of each member, more accessible (Tadros & Gregorash, 2022). Another example of mental and emotional support can come from community work. Participants in study from Dolwick Grieb et al. (2014) described that community support with a leader of similar life experiences would be beneficial during this transition. Additionally, working with schools to educate school personnel on the struggles experienced by families with incarcerated members, can significantly improve emotional, mental, and academic outcomes for students (Shalfer & Poehlmann, 2010). More broadly, communities could also benefit from childcare and financial resources, given that a prominent stressor within populations experiencing incarceration (Bruns, 2020; Dolwick Grieb et al., 2014).

Limitations and Future Directions

While the present study has various strengths, there are some limitations that should be acknowledged. First, data collection was limited with population in terms of participants needing to have a Facebook account, be a member of a particular Facebook group, as well as have internet access. This could have limited the perspectives of individuals of lower socioeconomic statuses, due to a potential lack of resources, such as internet connection. This data could also be exclusive of populations of certain age groups, who may not have access or experience with social media platforms and related technological necessities. Therefore, using Facebook may not have provided an overall representative sample of this population.

Second, demographic information, such as race, gender, and socioeconomic status, were unable to be collected because de-identified secondary data (i.e., previous Facebook posts) was utilized. Therefore, it is unknown whether demographic information may have impacted the results of this study. The terms that were utilized in the study included: “need,” “should,” “hope,” “suggest,” “want,” and “question.” Therefore, had other terms been utilized, more posts would have been able to have been collected, thus providing more data.

Third, given the subjective nature of Facebook posts, there is a chance of misunderstanding from interpretations of readers, or limited context provided by the author of the post (Tadros, Henson et al., 2023). Furthermore, we did not include emojis or pictures in our collection, in order to provide unity across the data, which may have created some lost meaning among the posts. Similarly with images, we had to interpret the meaning of the photo and then describe it, which could have also led to misinterpretation of what the original poster intended. Further, the data collected from Facebook was comprised mainly of female participants. Had we collected more data from male participants, our research results may have been stronger. Generally, men face more stigma and avoidance in regard to asking for help. Future research can investigate the stigmas or obstacles preventing a greater number of males from participating in virtual support from social media platforms.

As previously noted, both internal and external support creates the greatest outcomes for not only individuals postincarceration, but their families as well (Besemer et al., 2017; Folk et al., 2019; Tadros et al., 2022). However, there is a need for training and teaching for incarcerated individuals as well as their families about what to expect when they reenter the family system and society (Tadros, Hutcherson et al., 2022; Tadros & Morgan, 2022). Some barriers have been partially mitigated by advocacy from groups such as Support4Families which work to better integrate transitioning individuals out of incarceration (Pettus-Davis, 2021). Such support provides greater outcomes to at-risk populations that include the attached families and communities. However, further research should be conducted to address the unique needs of families and individuals experiencing postincarceration, in order to create better adjustment, and therefore, better outcomes for all.