The number of women seeking congressional office in the United States has dramatically increased since 1980. Previous research on women candidates explores why women run, but new research on candidate emergence shows that women face different challenges and advantages based on their race and ethnicity. We investigate these differences by disaggregating data on women’s candidate emergence by race and ethnicity to examine how these theories work when explicitly considering race and ethnicity. We focus our examination on women running in House primaries between 1980 and 2012. We argue that theories of candidate emergence are conditional to the racial and/or ethnic identification of the candidate. We employ a cross-sectional time series analysis with the intuition that examining congressional elections over time will allow us to make general comments about the participation of women in congressional elections. We find that many of the conditions thought necessary for women’s emergence as candidates are contextual and temporally specific. Moreover, conditions that encourage women to run do not necessarily apply to women of color.
AllenPeter. 2013. “Gendered Candidate Emergence in Britain: Why Are More Women Councillors Not Becoming MPs?” Politics33 (3): 147–59.
2.
AnziaSarah F.BerryChristopher R.2011. “The Jackie (and Jill) Robinson Effect: Why Do Congresswomen Outperform Congressmen?” American Journal of Political Science55 (3): 478–93.
3.
AtkesonLonna Rae. 2003. “Not All Cues Are Created Equal: The Conditional Impact of Female Candidates on Political Engagement.” The Journal of Politics65 (4): 1040–61.
4.
AtkesonLonna RaeCarrilloNancy. 2007. “More Is Better: The Influence of Collective Female Descriptive Representation on External Efficacy.” Politics & Gender3 (1): 79–101.
5.
BanducciSusan A.DonovanToddKarpJeffrey A.2004. “Minority Representation, Empowerment, and Participation.” The Journal of Politics66 (2): 534–56.
6.
BanducciSusan A.KarpJeffrey A.2000. “Gender, Leadership and Choice in Multiparty Systems.” Political Research Quarterly53 (4): 815–48.
BarnesTiffany D.BrantonRegina P.CasseseErin C.2017. “A Reexamination of Women’s Electoral Success in Open Seat Elections: The Conditioning Effect of Electoral Competition.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy38 (3): 298–317.
9.
BarretoMattFrasure-YokleyLorrieVargasEdwardWong.Janelle2017. “The Collaborative Multiracial Post-Election Survey (CMPS), 2016.” Los Angeles.
10.
BeckNathanielKatzJonathan N.1995. “What to Do (and Not to Do) with Time-series Cross-section Data.” The American Political Science Review89 (3): 634–47.
11.
BejaranoChristina E.2013. The Latina Advantage: Gender, Race, and Political Success. Austin: University of Texas Press.
12.
BiersackRobertHerrnsonPaul S.WilcoxClyde. 1993. “Seeds for Success: Early Money in Congressional Elections.” Legislative Studies Quarterly18 (4): 535–51.
13.
BoboLawrenceGilliamFranklin D.1990. “Race, Sociopolitical Participation, and Black Empowerment.” The American Political Science Review84 (2): 377–93.
14.
BondJon R.CovingtonCaryFleisherRichard. 1985. “Explaining Challenger Quality in Congressional Elections.” The Journal of Politics47 (2): 510–29.
15.
BonicaAdam. 2013. “Database on Ideology, Money in Politics, and Elections: Public Version 2.0.” http://data.stanford.edu/dime.
16.
BrewerSierraDundesLauren. 2018. “Concerned, Meet Terrified: Intersectional Feminism and the Women’s March.” Women’s Studies International Forum69:49–55.
17.
BrownNadia E.2014a. “Political Participation of Women of Color: An Intersectional Analysis.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy35 (4): 315–48.
18.
BrownNadia E.2014b. Sisters in the Statehouse: Black Women and Legislative Decision Making. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
19.
BrownNadia E.GershonSarah Allen. 2017. “Examining Intersectionality and Symbolic Representation.” Politics, Groups, and Identities5 (3): 500–05.
20.
BurnsNancySchlozmanKay LehmanVerbaSidney. 2001. The Private Roots of Public Action. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
21.
BurrellBarbara C.1992. “Women Candidates in Open-seat Primaries for the U. S. House: 1968–1990.” Legislative Studies Quarterly17 (4): 493–508.
22.
BurrellBarbara C.1995. A Woman’s Place Is in the House: Campaigning for Congress in the Feminist Era. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
23.
CampbellDavid E.WolbrechtChristina. 2006. “See Jane Run: Women Politicians as Role Models for Adolescents.” The Journal of Politics68 (2): 233–47.
24.
CareyTony E.LizotteMary-Kate. 2017. “Political Experience and the Intersection between Race and Gender.” Politics, Groups, and Identities. Published electronically July 17. doi:10.1080/21565503.2017.1354036.
25.
CarrollSusan J.Strimling.Wendy S.1983. Women’s Routes to Elective Office: A Comparison with Men’s. Center for the American Woman and Politics, Newark: Rutgers University.
26.
CasellasJason P.2011. “Latinas in Legislatures.” Aztlán: A Journal of Chicano Studies36 (1): 171–89.
CollinsPatricia Hill. 2002. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. New York: Routledge.
29.
CrenshawKimberlé Williams. 1991. “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color.” Stanford Law Review43 (6): 1241–99.
30.
CrenshawKimberlé Williams. 1995. “Panel Presentation on Cultural Battery Speaker: Kimberle Williams Crenshaw.” University of Toledo Law Review. University of Toledo. College of Law25:891–1039.
31.
Crowder-MeyerMelody. 2013. “Gendered Recruitment without Trying: How Local Party Recruiters Affect Women’s Representation.” Politics & Gender9 (4): 390–413.
32.
DeckmanMelissaMcTagueJohn. 2014. “Did the ‘War on Women’ Work? Women, Men, and the Birth Control Mandate in the 2012 Presidential Election.” American Politics Research43 (1): 3–26.
DolanKathleen. 2008. “Women as Candidates in American Politics: The Continuing Impact of Sex and Gender.” In Political Women and American Democracy, edited by WolbrechtChristinaBeckwithKaren, 110–27. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
35.
DoviSuzanne. 2002. “Preferable Descriptive Representatives: Will Just Any Woman, Black, or Latino Do?” The American Political Science Review96 (4): 729–43.
36.
EaglyAlice H.KarauSteven J.2002. “Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice toward Female Leaders.” Psychological Review109 (3): 573–98.
37.
ElderLaurel. 2004. “Why Women Don’t Run: Explaining Women’s Underrepresentation in America’s Political Institutions.” Women & Politics26 (2): 27–56.
FoxRichard L.LawlessJennifer L.2010. “If Only They’d Ask: Gender, Recruitment, and Political Ambition.” The Journal of Politics72 (2): 310–26.
40.
FragaLuis RicardoLopezLindaMartinez-EbersValerieRamírezRicardo. 2006. “Gender and Ethnicity: Patterns of Electoral Success and Legislative Advocacy among Latina and Latino State Officials in Four States.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy28 (3–4): 121–45.
41.
FragaLuis RicardoMartinez-EbersValerieLopezLindaRamírezRicardo. 2008. “Representing Gender and Ethnicity: Strategic Intersectionality.” In Legislative Women: Getting Elected, Getting Ahead, edited by ReingoldBeth, 157–74. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.
42.
FragaLuis RicardoMartinez-EbersValerieRamirezRicardoLopezLinda. 2003. “Gender and Ethnicity: The Political Incorporation of Latina and Latino State Legislators.” Inequality and Social Policy Seminar, Vol. 10, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Cambridge, MA, November.
FrederickAngela. 2013. “Bringing Narrative In: Race–Gender Storytelling, Political Ambition, and Women’s Paths to Public Office.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy34 (2): 113–37.
45.
FreemanJo. 1986. “The Political Culture of the Democratic and Republican Parties.” Political Science Quarterly101 (3): 327–56.
46.
FrymerPaul. 1999. Uneasy Alliances: Race and Party Competition in America. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
47.
FultonSarah A.2012. “Running Backwards and in High Heels: The Gendered Quality Gap and Incumbent Electoral Success.” Political Research Quarterly65 (2): 303–14.
48.
FultonSarah A.MaestasCherie D.MaiselL. SandyStoneWalter J.2006. “The Sense of a Woman: Gender, Ambition, and the Decision to Run for Congress.” Political Research Quarterly59 (2): 235–48.
49.
GambleKatrina. 2010. “Young, Gifted, Black, and Female: Why Aren’t There More Yvette Clarkes in Congress.” In Whose Black Politics? Cases in Post-racial Black Leadership, edited by GillespieAndra, 293–307. New York: Routledge.
50.
Garcia-BedollaLisaTateKatherineWongJanelle. 2014. “Indelible Effects: The Impact of Women of Color in the U.S. Congress.” In Women and Elective Office: Past, Present, and Future, edited by ThomasSueWilcoxClyde, 235–52. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
51.
GayClaudine. 2001. “The Effect of Black Congressional Representation on Political Participation.” The American Political Science Review95 (3): 589–602.
52.
GershonSarah. 2012. “When Race, Gender, and the Media Intersect: Campaign News Coverage of Minority Congresswomen.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy33 (2): 105–25.
53.
Hardy-FantaCarol. 1993. Latina Politics, Latino Politics: Gender, Culture, and Political Participation in Boston. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
54.
HerrnsonPaul S.LayJ. CelesteStokesAtiya Kai. 2003. “Women Running ‘as Women’: Candidate Gender, Campaign Issues, and Voter-targeting Strategies.” The Journal of Politics65 (1): 244–55.
55.
HolmanMirya R.SchneiderMonica C.2018. “Gender, Race, and Political Ambition: How Intersectionality and Frames Influence Interest in Political Office.” Politics, Groups, and Identities6 (2): 264–80.
56.
HowellSusan E.FaganDeborah. 1988. “Race and Trust in Government: Testing the Political Reality Model.” Public Opinion Quarterly52 (3): 343–50.
57.
HuddyLeonieTerkildsenNayda. 1993a. “Gender Stereotypes and the Perception of Male and Female Candidates.” American Journal of Political Science37 (1): 119–47.
58.
HuddyLeonieTerkildsenNayda. 1993b. “The Consequences of Gender Stereotypes for Women Candidates at Different Levels and Types of Office.” Political Research Quarterly46 (3): 503–25.
JonesPhilip Edward. 2014. “Does the Descriptive Representation of Gender Influence Accountability for Substantive Representation?” Politics & Gender10 (2): 175–99.
62.
KarpJeffrey A.BanducciSusan A.2008. “When Politics Is Not Just a Man’s Game: Women’s Representation and Political Engagement.” Electoral Studies27 (1): 105–15.
63.
KaufmannKaren M.2002. “Culture Wars, Secular Realignment, and the Gender Gap in Party Identification.” Political Behavior24 (3): 283–307.
64.
KernellGeorgia. 2009. “Giving Order to Districts: Estimating Voter Distributions with National Election Returns.” Political Analysis: An Annual Publication of the Methodology Section of the American Political Science Association17 (3): 215–35.
KrasnoJonathan S.GreenDonald Philip. 1988. “Preempting Quality Challengers in House Elections.” The Journal of Politics50 (4): 920–36.
67.
LawlessJennifer L.2004. “Politics of Presence? Congresswomen and Symbolic Representation.” Political Research Quarterly57 (1): 81–99.
68.
LawlessJennifer L.FoxRichard L.2010. It Still Takes A Candidate: Why Women Don’t Run for Office. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
69.
LawlessJennifer L.FoxRichard L.2013. Girls Just Wanna Not Run: The Gender Gap in Young Americans’ Political Ambition. Washington, DC: Women & Politics Institute.
70.
LeeMarcia Manning. 1976. “Why Few Women Hold Public Office: Democracy and Sexual Roles.” Political Science Quarterly91 (2): 297–314.
71.
MansbridgeJane. 1999. “Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent ‘Yes.’” The Journal of Politics61 (3): 628–57.
MillerJoanne M.KrosnickJon A.2004. “Threat as a Motivator of Political Activism: A Field Experiment.” Political Psychology25 (4): 507–23.
74.
MintaMichael D.BrownNadia E.2014. “Intersecting Interests: Gender, Race, and Congressional Attention to Women’s Issues.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race11 (2): 253–72.
75.
MoCecilia Hyunjung. 2015. “The Consequences of Explicit and Implicit Gender Attitudes and Candidate Quality in the Calculations of Voters.” Political Behavior37 (2): 357–95.
76.
MontoyaLisa J.Hardy-FantaCarolGarciaSonia. 2000. “Latina Politics: Gender, Participation, and Leadership.” PS: Political Science & Politics33 (3): 555–61.
77.
NorrisPippaLovenduskiJoni. 1995. Political Recruitment: Gender, Race and Class in the British Parliament. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
78.
OchMalliga.2016. “The Grand Old Party of 2016: No Longer a Party of Old White Men?” In The Right Women: Republican Party Activists, Candidates, and Legislators, edited by OchMalligaShamesShauna L., 3–24. Santa Barbara: Praeger.
79.
PalmerBarbaraSimonDennis. 2008. Breaking the Political Glass Ceiling: Women and Congressional Elections (Women in American Politics). 2nd ed.New York: Routledge.
80.
PantojaAdrian D.SeguraGary M.2003. “Does Ethnicity Matter? Descriptive Representation in Legislatures and Political Alienation among Latinos.” Social Science Quarterly84 (2): 441–60.
81.
PardoMary. 1998. Mexican American Women Activists: Identity and Resistance in Two Los Angeles Communities. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
82.
PaxtonPamelaKunovichSheriHughesMelanie M.2007. “Gender in Politics.” Annual Review of Sociology33 (1): 263–84.
83.
PhillipsAnne. 1995. The Politics of Presence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
84.
PhilpotTasha S.WaltonHanes. 2007. “One of Our Own: Black Female Candidates and the Voters Who Support Them.” American Journal of Political Science51 (1): 49–62.
85.
PitkinHanna F.1967. The Concept of Representation. Berkeley: University of California Press.
86.
RosenwasserShirley MillerDeanNorma G.1989. “Gender Role and Political Office: Effects of Perceived Masculinity/Femininity of Candidate and Political Office.” Psychology of Women Quarterly13 (1): 77–85.
87.
SanbonmatsuKira. 2006. Where Women Run: Gender & Party in the United States. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
88.
SanbonmatsuKira. 2015. “Electing Women of Color: The Role of Campaign Trainings.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy36 (2): 137–60.
89.
SanbonmatsuKiraCarrollSusan J.Walsh.Debbie2009. Poised to Run: Women’s Pathways to the State Legislatures. Center for American Women and Politics, Eagleton Institute of Politics, Newark:Rutgers University.
90.
SanchezGabriel R.2006. “The Role of Group Consciousness in Latino Public Opinion.” Political Research Quarterly59 (3): 435–46.
91.
SapiroVirginia. 1981. “Research Frontier Essay: When Are Interests Interesting? The Problem of Political Representation of Women.” The American Political Science Review75 (3): 701–16.
92.
SapiroVirginia. 1982. “Private Costs of Public Commitments or Public Costs of Private Commitments? Family Roles versus Political Ambition.” American Journal of Political Science26 (2): 265–79.
93.
SapiroVirginiaConoverPamela Johnston. 1997. “The Variable Gender Basis of Electoral Politics: Gender and Context in the 1992 US Election.” British Journal of Political Science27 (4): 497–523.
94.
ScolaBecki. 2006. “Women of Color in State Legislatures: Gender, Race, Ethnicity and Legislative Office Holding.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy28 (3–4): 43–70.
95.
SeltzerRichardNewmanJodyLeightonMelissa Voorhees. 1997. Sex as a Political Variable: Women as Candidates and Voters in U.S. Elections. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.
SkulleyCarrie. 2017. “‘You Should Smile More!’ Gender and Media Coverage of Candidates during the 2016 Presidential Primary.” Pp. 59–80 in Unconventional, Partisan, and Polarizing Rhetoric: How the 2016 Election Shaped the Way Candidates Strategize, Engage, and Communicate, edited by KraybillJeanine. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 59-80.
99.
SmithEric R. A. N.FoxRichard L.2001. “The Electoral Fortunes of Women Candidates for Congress.” Political Research Quarterly54 (1): 205–21.
100.
SmoothWendy. 2006. “Intersectionality in Electoral Politics: A Mess Worth Making.” Politics & Gender2 (3): 400–14.
101.
SteenJennifer A.2009. Self-financed Candidates in Congressional Elections. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
102.
Stokes-BrownAtiya KaiDolanKathleen. 2010. “Race, Gender, and Symbolic Representation: African American Female Candidates as Mobilizing Agents.” Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties20 (4): 473–94.
103.
SwersMichele L.2002. The Difference Women Make: The Policy Impact of Women in Congress. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
104.
SwersMichele L.2005. “Connecting Descriptive and Substantive Representation: An Analysis of Sex Differences in Cosponsorship Activity.” Legislative Studies Quarterly30 (3): 407–33.
105.
ThomasSueWilcoxClyde. 2014. Women and Elective Office: Past, Present, and Future. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
106.
ValentinoNicholas A.HutchingsVincent L.BanksAntoine J.DavisAnne K.2008. “Is a Worried Citizen a Good Citizen? Emotions, Political Information Seeking, and Learning via the Internet.” Political Psychology29 (2): 247–73.
107.
VerbaSidneyBurnsNancySchlozmanKay Lehman. 1997. “Knowing and Caring about Politics: Gender and Political Engagement.” The Journal of Politics59 (4): 1051–72.
108.
WardOrlanda. 2016. “Seeing Double: Race, Gender, and Coverage of Minority Women’s Campaigns for the U.S. House of Representatives.” Politics & Gender12 (2): 317–43.
WolbrechtChristina. 2002. “Female Legislators and the Women’s Rights Agenda: From Feminine Mystique to Feminist Era.” In Women Transforming Congress, edited by Simon RosenthalCindy, 170–97. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
